Psychology Unit 1: Biological Bases of Behavior

Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that carry, boost, and balance signals between neurons (nerve cells) and other cells in the body

Inhibitory

decreases the likelihood of action potential

Excitatory

increases the likelihood of action potential

Acetylcholine (ACH)

Excitatory neurotransmitter, involved in muscle action, learning, and memory. An undersupply causes Alzheimer’s disease.

Dopamine

Inhibitory neurotransmitter involving pleasure, reward, and motivation and motor control over voluntary movements. Excessive amounts are linked to schizophrenia. Lack linked to the tremors in Parkinsons

Serotonin

Inhibitory neurotransmitter, affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal. Undersupply is linked to depression, as Prozac and other anti-depressants raise its levels

Norepinephrine

Excitatory neurotransmitter, helps control alertness & arousal in the flight/fight response. Has a role in learning and memory retrieval. Adrenaline and bursts of energy.
undersupply can depress mood

Glutamate

An excitatory neurotransmitter involving memory, learning, and movement. Oversupply can overstimulate the brain, producing migraines or seizures (epilepsy).

GABA

an inhibitory neurotransmitter that offsets excitatory messages. Helps regulate sleep-wake cycles. Undersupply linked to anxiety, seizures, tremors, and insomnia.

Substance P

an excitatory neurotransmitter that deals with the body’s perception of pain and sends pain signals to the brain. Takes injury info to the spinal cord then to the brain. Too much of this leads to chronic pain, depression, and anxiety

Endorphins

An inhibitory neurotransmitter. Natural opiates that are released in response to pain and vigorous exercise

Agonists

Drugs that people put into their bodies that speed up the neural process, causing an over-release or absorption of a neurotransmitter and blocks the reuptake process. When reuptake is blocked, the lingering neurotransmitters in the synapse will continue to be absorbed until it is gone, creating a lasting lingering feeling.

Cocaine

An agonist drug that blocks the reuptake of dopamine.

MDMA (Ecstasy)

A drug that blocks the reuptake of serotonin, repeated use leads to destruction of serotonin cells.

Antagonists

Drugs that people put into their bodies that slow or stop transmission of a neurotransmitter. They bind themselves to receptors on the dendrite, not allowing a message to be passed on.

Curare

a type of antagonist drug that is a poison and stops the flow of ACH causing paralysis.

Sensory Neurons (Afferent Neurons)

neurons that carry info from the body to the brain

Interneurons

neurons found in the spinal cord and the brain that interpret incoming information and determine the next course of action

Motor Neurons (Efferent Neurons)

neurons that carry information from the spinal cord or the brain to the rest of the body in order to initiate behavior

Reflexes

movements/actions controlled by the spinal cord without any conscious effort on behalf of the brain. They are primitivve responses that protect our bodies from danger.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Part of the nervous system, the brain and the spinal cord.D

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

The sensory and motor Neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body. The system is subdivided into somatic and automatic nervous systems.

Somatic Nervous System

The division of the peripheral Nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles, contains the motor nerves needed for the voluntary muscles

Autonomic Nervous System

Another division of the peripheral Nervous system that controls the glands and muscles of the internal organs, monitors the autonomic functions like breathing, blood pressure, and digestive processes. Further divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems

Sympathetic Nervous System

The part of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body to deal with perceived threats and stress

Parasympathetic Nervous System

The part of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body and brings it back down to a relaxed state.

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

Electrodes are placed on the scalp that amplify recordings of the waves of electrical activity across the brain’s surface

Computed Tomography (CT or CAT Scan)

A series of X-ray photos taken from different angles and combined by computers into a composite representation of the brain

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

A technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that allow us to see structures within the brain

Functional MRI (fMRI)

measures brain activity by detecting changes associated with blood flow. When an area of the brain is in use, blood flow to that region also increases

Lesion Studies

case study analysis of victims who suffer from a brain injury, resulting in variations in normal behavior

Brain Stem

where the spinal chord connects to the brain. Its functions are mostly done outside of our awareness, and occur without any conscious effort (autonomically). The parts of this part of the brain controls basic biological functions that keep the human body alive

Medulla

The point at which the spinal cord enters the skull, controls heartbeat and breathing, blood pressure, and attention. The thickest parts of your skull keep it safe

Cerebellum

Part of the brain that extends from the rear of the brain stem, coordinates voluntary movements and balance

Reticular Formation/ Reticular Activating System

part of the brain that extends from the spine to the thalamus in the middle of the brain. Responsible for arousal (wakefulness) and attentiveness.

Thalamus

Part of the brain that receives input from all of the senses except smell, and routes it to the proper area of the brain for processing.

Hypothalamus

Part of the brain that acts as the body’s thermostat. Responsible for maintaining homeostasis (internal balance). Controls temperature, thirst, hunger, arousal, etc. It also relays communication between the brain and the endocrine system via the pituitary gland. It then monitors the hormones released into the bloodstream

Hippocampus

part of the brain that processes and creates new memories

Amygdala

part of the brain that is tied with emotions, especially those of aggression, rage, and fear.

The Limbic System

Parts of the brain that work together to control and determine your emotions. The amygdala, hippocampus, thalamus, and hypothalamus

Cerebral Cortex

the intricate, wrinkled covering of the brain. Contains interneurons and glial cells

Glial Cells

Cells in the cerebral cortex that help hold the neurons in place andprovide nutrients to myelin

Right Hemisphere

Hemisphere that specializes in spatial abilities, facial recognition, visual imagery, music, creativity, and emotional instincts.

Left Hemisphere

Hemisphere that specializes in language, math, logic, analytic thought, scientificc thought, and reasoning.

Corpus Callosum

Connects the right and left hemispheres of the brain, lets messages pass between the two halves.

Hemispheric Specialization

Each hemisphere of the brain has different functions

Frontal Lobes

Mostly involved in abstract thought, making plans and judgments, speaking, and muscle movements. Contains the motor cortex.

Motor Cortex

recieves messages from the brain and then sends messages back to the muscles of the body (via motor Neurons) in order to control voluntary movements, located in the frontal lobes

Broca’s Area

Located in the left frontal lobe, controls language4 expression and the muscle’s involved with producing speech.

Broca’s Aphasia

damage to Broca’s Area that leads to aphasia. People with his often feel that they know what they wish to say but are unable to produce the words

Parietal Lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head. Includes sensory (or somato-sensory) cortex. Integrates sensory information like sight, sound, touch, taste, and smell.

Temporal Lobes

portions of the cerebral cortex roughly located above the ears, involves audio processing, naming, verbal memory and other language functions

Wernicke’s Area

Located in the left temporal lobe, this area interprets and understands both written and spoken language.

Wernicke’s Aphasia

Damage to Wernicke’s area can lead to aphasia. People with this have dificulty understanding words, written or spoken.

Occipital Lobes

located at the back of the head, processes visual information, including color, form, and motion

Plasticity

THe ability of the brain tissue to take on new functions. Strongest in childhood. Important if parts of the brain are damaged or destroyed

Consciousness

Awareness of yourself and the environment. The experiences of conscious behaviors can include thoughts, sensations, and memories

Biological Rhythms

natural life cycles that help to guide our levels of awareness and our behaviors

Annaul Cycles

Seasonal changes affecting moods, appetite, sleep patterns

Twenty-Eight Day Cycle

Female menstrual cycle

Ninety-Minute Cycle

Sleep cycle

Twenty-Four Hour Cycle

Daily cycle of levels of alertness, hormones, body temperature, etc. also known as circadian rhythms

Circadian Rhythms

A cycle or rhythm that is roughly 24 hours long. The cyclical daily fluctuations in biological and psychological processes.

Peak Mental Alertness: 9:00am and 9:00pm

Low Mental Alertness: 3:00am and 3:00pm

Peak Physical Strength: 11:00am and 7:00pm

Peak Sensations: 3:00am and 6:00pm

Peak Sensitivity to Pain: 3:00am and 5:00pm

Peak Degrees of Sleepines: 3:00am and 3:00pm

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN)

A cluster of neurons in the hypothalamus, control the wakefulness and sleep aspects of circadian rhythms.

Restorative Sleep Theory

Sleep promotes physiological processes that restore and rejuvenate the body and the mind. NREM= body restoration and REM= mind restoration

REM Sleep

rapid eye movements and dreaming occur and voluntary muscle activity is suppressed

NREM

quiet, topically dreamless sleep in which rapid eye movement are absent

Stages of Sleep- Pre-Sleep

Transition from wakefulness to sleep (drowsy stage_, you may experience so type of hypnagogic hallucinations and/or myoclonic jerks

NREM Stage 1: ALPHA Waves

Transitional stage from wakefulness to sleep, takes place during the 5-10 minutes of sleep. Gradually disengage from the sensations of the surrounding world. Still able to regain consciousness easily at this point

NREM Stage 2: Theta waves

15-20 minutes, when breathing becomes rhythmical. Some small muscle twitches. brain activity begins to slow down. Experience sleep spindles

Sleep Spindles

Quick bursts of brain activity that last for a second or two

NREM Stage 3: Delta Waves

Deepest sleep, when heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing drop to their lowest levels. Body is busy removing lactic acid from your muscles, supplying growth hormones, and fortifying your immune system

REM Sleep

When you dream. “paradoxical sleep”. Muscles are generally relaxed, but other body systems are active. The brain becomes more active and generates small, fast brain waves. Visual and motor Neurons fire during this stage, but voluntary muscles movements are suppressed (sleep paralysis). First REM stage lasts about 15 mins, stage 1-REM takes 90 mins

REM Rebound Sleep

The less time we spend in REM sleep one nihgt, the longer amount of time we will spend in REM sleep the next night

Sigmund Freud’s Interpretation of Dreams

Dreaming to discharge otherwise unacceptable feelings mostly of sex and aggression

Activation Synthesis Theory of Drea,ing

Dreams are from neural activity that spreads upward from the brain stem. Dreams are the brains attempt to make sense out of the random neuural “static”

Consolidation Dream Theory

We dream to process information and consolidate our memories from the day. Dreams help us sift, sort, and fix the day’s experiences in our memory.

Sleep Deprivation

Affect of not getting a proper 8 hours of sleep at night include fatigue, imparied concentration, immune suppression, irritability, slowed performance

Insomnia

A person is unable to fall asleep, to stay asleep, or to feel adequately rested by sleep

Sleepwalking (somnambulism)

Occurs during Stage 3, the sleeper can move around objects, but poorly coordinated

Sleep Apnea

Person repeatedly stops breathing during sleep. Carbon dioxide builds up in the blood, causing a momentary awakening during which the sleeper snorts or gulps for air

Narcolepsy

A sleep disorder characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness and brief lapses into sleep throughout the day

REM Sleep Behavior Disorder

sleep disorder in which you physically act out vivid, often unpleasant dreams with vocal sounds and sudden, often violent arm and leg movements during REM sleeps when you SHOULD be paralyzed

Psychoactive Drugs

drugs that change moods and perceptions

Brain Pathways

made up of interconnected neurons along which signals are transmitted from one brain region to another.

Substance Abuse

Abuse use of a substance that results in disruption of daily functioning or in legal/psychological problems

Physical Dependence

Person must take the drug to avoid withdrawal symptoms

Tolerance

More of a drug is needed to produce the oringinal/desired effect

Withdrawal Symptoms

Unpleasant physical reactions, combined with intense cravings when you stop using a drug you are addicted to.

Drug Rebound Effect

Withdrawal symptoms are opposite to the drug addiction

Depressants

drugs that reduce neural activity, slows body function. Includes barbiturates like tranquilizers and some sleeping pills

Opiods (Pain Killers)

Depresses neural function, mimics endorphins- pain and anxiety replaced by blissful pleasure. includes opium, morphine, heroin, vicodin, oxycontin, fentanyl, and prescription pain killers.

Stimulants

drugs that excite neural activity and speeds up body function. Produces feelings of optimism and boundless energy, arouse behavior, and increase mental awareness; stimulates the cerebral cortex. Caffeine, nicotine, amphetamines, cocaine

Psychedelics/Hallucinogens

psychedelic (mind-manifesting) drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input. LSD, marijuana, mescaline, peyote

Neuron

Basic cell of the nervous system

Dendrites

Receive incoming signal (neurotransmitters from the previous neuron)

Soma

Cell body (includes the nucleus)

Axon

Action potential travels down this

Myelin Sheath

speeds up signal down the axon, protects axon

Terminals

release neurotransmitters, send signal onto next neuron