1.5 Edexcel A-level Politics: Core political ideas

The origins of liberalism

• Feudalism → capitalism (11-15th century)

• The Reformation (early 16th century)

• The Enlightenment (17-18th century)

• The Industrial Revolution (18th-19th century)

Two strands of liberalism

• Classical liberalism

• Modern liberalism

Classical liberalism

• Seen as the original form of liberalism

• Believe in free markets, trade, religious tolerance and diplomacy abroad

Modern liberalism

• Seen as development of classical liberalism

• Believe in state international to ensure equality of opportunity and social justice

Core principles of liberalism

• Individualism

• Freedom and liberty

• The state as a necessary evil

• Rationalism

• Equality and social justice

• Liberal democracy

Individualism

• The belief in preserving individual rights and freedoms over collective goals (the primacy of the individual)

• Emmanuel Kant, in his second formulation of the Categorical Imperative, that we should not use others as a ‘mere means to an end’

• Other people are also rational individuals and in treating them as a ‘mere means to an end’, we prevent them using their rational will

• We.must tolerate other people’s beliefs and practices

Classical liberals on individualism (egoistic individualism)

• The view that individuals are rational, self-interest and self-reliant

• They flourish when left to their own rational goals

• Society is just a collection of individuals (atomistic view of society)

• Outcomes are tied to personal effort and responsibilities

• The state should be kept minimal in order to allow individual flourish

Examples of egoistic individualism

• William Gladstone thought lower taxes would let money ‘fructify in the pockets of the people’

Modern liberals on individualism (developmental individualism)

• The view that individuals are altruistic as well as self-interested

• They flourish through common effort and state support

• Society is the result of individual who choose to work together for common goals

• Individuals are shaped by social and economic circumstances

• An ‘enabling state’ should therefore exist to help individuals flourish

Examples of developmental individualism

• David Lloyd-George introduced the old pension and higher income taxes on the rich

Agreements and disagreement among liberals on individualism

• Egoistic and developmental individualism

• The role of the state

• Equality and social justice

Agreement about individualism in the primacy of the individual in both types of individualism

Both classical and modern liberals agree that:

• The individual is fundamental to society

• Political authority, law and institutions are justified to the extent that they protect individual rights and allow individuals to flourish (John Stuart Mill)

Disagreement about individualism: the way in which individuals flourish

• Classical liberals are more concerned with the individual as rational, self-interested and self-reliant (John Locke and John Stuart Mill)

• This means that outcomes are tied closely to personal effort and responsibility

• Modern liberals, by contrast argue that individuals are shaped by social and economic circumstances

• This means that individuals cannot flourishing by being self-reliant (John Rawls)

Agreement about liberalism: moral worth of the individual over the state (or any other system)

Classical and modern liberals agree that:

• Individuals have inherent value dignity (John Locke)

• Universal rights and equal rights allow all individuals to flourishing (Mary Wollstonecraft)

• The state must therefore protect individual freedoms

Disagreements about individualism: the role of the state in human flourishing

• Classical liberals believe that the individual flourishes when left to pursue their own goals (John Stuart Mill)

• Any expansion of state power beyond foundational and formal equality places collectivist goals above the individual

• Modern liberals, by contrast, believe that the state can empower individuals

• Individuals are affected by social and economic circumstances

• An ‘enabling state’ can expand opportunities and allow individuals flourishing (John Rawls)

Agreements about individualism: natural rights and formal equality

Classical and modern liberals agree that:

• By virtue of being born, human beings have rights that cannot be taken away (John Locke)

• Individuals enjoy the same legal rights and protections regardless of background

• This allows for individuals to flourish as they are not restricted by factors such as race, gender or social class

Disagreements about individualism: economic inequality

• Classical liberals argue that laissez-faire capitalism upholds liberty and prioritises the individual above all else

• This means that they believe that inequality is a natural outcome of free choice and personal responsibility

• Economic intervention prioritises collective goals such as taxation over the individual

• Modern liberals, by contrast, argue that economic inequality undermines individualism (John Rawls)

• This is because it does not allow the poorest of individuals to flourish

• Therefore, economic intervention is necessary and does not prioritise collective goals over the individualS

Freedom and liberty

• The absence of arbitrary power and unrestrained force

• Locke argued that ‘the end of law is not to abolish or restrain, but to preserve and enlarge freedom’

Classical liberals on freedom and liberty (negative freedoms)

• Freedom that individuals can exercise without interference by other people (John Stuart Mill)

• Classical liberals claim that these freedoms are the ones that ought to be protected by the state

• Individuals do not need to adhere to a common will unless it is in their best interest to do so

Examples of negative freedoms

• The first amendment of the US constitution

  • The freedom of speech

  • The freedom of religion

  • The freedom of press

John Stuart Mill’s harm principle

The government should to restrict freedoms to prevent harm to others, not themselves.

Modern liberals on freedom and liberty (positive freedoms)

• Freedoms that allow individuals to realise their potential and flourish/do as they wish

• TH Green argued the government could increase/promote individual freedom

• This is because the state can remove social and economic barriers

Agreements and disagreements among liberals on freedom and liberty

• Negative and positive freedoms

• The liberties protected and enhanced by the state

• The power of the state over freedoms

Agreements about freedom and liberty: the importance of freedom and liberty

Classical and modern liberals agree that:

• Freedom is integral to liberalism

• Political systems must protect individuals from coercion and arbitrary authority (John Stuart Mill)

Disagreements about freedom and liberty: negative and positive freedoms

• Classical liberals prioritise negative freedoms

• They allow individuals to flourish because they are not being forced or subject to arbitrary authority (John Stuart Mill

• Modern liberals place a greater emphasis on positive freedoms

• This is because the poorest in society are not capable of realising their potential nor it if the state does not intervene (John Rawls)

• The authority is not arbitrary and actually promotes individual freedoms according to TH Green

Agreements about freedom and liberty: civil liberties should be protected by the state

Classical and modern liberals agree that:

• Civil liberties are essential for self-expression, a liberal democracy and protection from authoritarianism

• Therefore, the state must protect them by enshrining them in law

Disagreements about freedom and liberty: the role of the state in enhancing freedoms and liberties

• Classical liberals see state intervention as restricting freedoms and liberty

• The extent to which it exists is to provide a police force, military and courts

• Modern liberals argue that state intervention necessary in promoting freedoms

• This is because they are able to remove barriers to individuals doing what they are capable of such as poverty and discrimination

Agreements about freedom and liberty: the extent of the social contract/opposition to arbitrary power

Classical and modern liberals agree that:

• No authority should have absolute or unchecked power

• Freedom and liberty require law, constitutions and accountability

• If the government ceases to promote freedoms, the people have the right to to withdraw their consent to be governed (John Locke)

Disagreements about freedom and liberty: state intervention in the economy

• Classical liberals believe that laissez-faire capitalism is an expression of liberty

• Freedom of choice and personal responsibility is limited when the government intervenes in the economy

• The markets are also most effective without intervention

• Modern liberals, by contrast, argue that state intervention is necessary in order to maximise individual freedoms (John Rawls)

• The state removes social and economic barriers for the poorest society to do as they are capable of

The state as a necessary evil

• The state is necessary to protect foundational and formal equality and enforce law and order

• The state is ‘a necessary evil’ because it limits individual freedoms and liberty but it is preferable to a life in a state of nature

• Checks and balances should exist to limit government overreach and prevent abuse of power

• Power should not be concentrated in a central government

• Lord Acton claims ‘power corrupts and absolute powers tend to corrupt absolutely’

Classical liberals on the state as a necessary evil (minimal state)

• The primary function of the state are to provide a police force, military and independent courts

• This prevents individuals from harming one another (John Stuart Mill) and protects them form external threats

• It also protects natural rights (John Locke) allows equality under the law

• The state only intervenes only when absolutely necessary

• Economic intervention by the state is discouraged

• This is because they believe the markers operate more effectively

Modern liberals on the state as a necessary evil (enabling state)

• Modern liberals recognise that social and economic circumstances can limit individual freedoms

• The state is thus necessary to help individuals flourish

• The state must intervene in the economy in order to create an equality of opportunity (John Rawls)

• It also needs to create safety nets in the form of pensions and system of national insurance to support those facing unemployment or long-term sickness

Agreements and disagreements amongst liberals on the state as a necessary evil

• The state is necessary to protecting rights

• There should be limits to the power of the state

• The nature of the social contract

Agreements about the state as a necessary evil: the state is necessary

Modern and classical liberals agree that:

• The state is needed to protect rights, enforce law and maintain order

• Although the state technically limits liberty, it is more compatible for liberals than anarchism as it prevents the dangers of the state of nature

Disagreements about the state: the scope and size of the state

• Classical liberals support a minimal/night-watchman state

• The state’s primary function is to provide a police force, military and courts

• This prevents from individuals from harming one another (John Stuart Mill) and protects individuals from external threats

• The state does not contribute to individual flourishing

• Modern liberals support an enabling state

• This is because it recognises social and economic inequality

• The state is able to create equality of opportunity (John Rawls) and enables human flourishing

Agreements about the state as a necessary evil: limits to the power of the state

Classical and modern liberals agree that:

• The power of state should be limited by law

• This prevents tyranny and an abuse of power

• This also allows for a true liberal democracy

Disagreements about the state as a necessary evil: the role of the state in the economy

• Classical liberals argue that the state’s role in the economy should be minimal

• This is because they believe the economy functions most effectively under laissez-faire capitalism

• The government intervening in the economy would also limit individual freedoms

• Modern liberals support a more Keynesian style of economics

• They believe that if the government does not intervene in the economy, this will lead to mass unemployment and monopolies

• It allows for an equality of opportunity (John Rawls), maximise individual freedoms

Agreements about the state as a necessary evil: the extent of the social contract

Classical and modern liberals agree that:

• The state governs under the consent of the citizens (John Locke)

• They are accountable to citizens through mechanisms such as elections and courts as well as having constitutional limits placed on them

Disagreements about the state as a necessary evil: the purpose of the state

• Classical liberals view the state solely as protective

• It is a ‘night-watchman’

• It should exist only to the extent that it protects individuals from the dangers of the state of nature

• Modern liberals view the state as protective and a mechanism for equality and social justice

• Equality and social justice is necessary for allowing individuals to flourish

Rationalism

The view that human beings by nature are capable of reason and logic.

Classical liberals on rationalism

• Strong faith in rationalism

• Humans are all naturally rational (Mary Wallstonecroft) and thus should be able to pursue their own interest without state interference

• This underpins their support for individualism, laissez-faire capitalism and a minimal state

• Education develops rational citizens who can informed political and economic choices

• Policies should be universal principles derived from reason

• This includes natural rights and equality under the law (foundational and formal equality)

Modern liberals on rationalism

• Pragmatic about rationalism

• Human beings are capable of reason

• Human decision-making is shaped and sometimes limited by social conditions, education and access to information

• Rational decision-making may require state support

• This justifies state intervention in education, consumer protection and public health

Agreements and disagreements among liberals: rationalism

• The extent to which individuals are rational

• The basis of public policy

• The importance of education

Agreements about rationalism: faith in reason

Classical and modern liberals agree that:

• Human beings are capable of rational thought and informed decision making

• This allows for individuals to have freedom of choice and a liberal democracy

Disagreements about rationalism: optimism about rationalism

• Classical liberals strongly view individuals as rational

• This underpins their beliefs in individualism, laissez-faire capitalism and a minimal state

• Modern liberals are more pragmatic about the extent to individuals are rationals

• They recognise that choice are shaped by and sometimes limited by social conditions, education and access to information

Agreements about rationalism: traditional as the sole basis of public policy

Classical and modern liberals agree that:

• We should not abide by tradition or authorities without rational justification

• Political arrangements should be based on reason

Disagreements about rationalism: the basis of public policy

• Classical liberals believe that we can derive universal principles from reason

• This includes natural rights and equality before the law

• Other decisions can be made by individuals

• This is because human beings are naturally rational and able to pursue their own interests without state interference

• Modern liberals believe that policies must be pragmatic and evidence-based In order to adapt to changing circumstances rather than rely solely on abstract principles

• Human decision-making is shaped and limited by social conditions, education and access to information

Agreements about rationalism: the importance of education

Classical and modern liberals agree that:

• Education is necessary in developing rational citizens capable of making informed political and economic decisions

• This includes women (Mary Wollstonecraft)

Disagreements about rationalism: the role of the state in education

• Classical liberals reject paternalism

• This is because individuals are naturally rational

• They do not need the state to help them pursue their rational goals

• Modern liberals accept some paternalism

• They believe that education can support individuals to make informed and rational decision-making

Equality and social justice

• Distributive justice

• Equality of opportunity

• Foundational equality

• Formal equality

Distributive justice

Rawls (applying the difference principle) argued that inequality is justified only if it benefits the worst off in society.

Equality of opportunity

People should have the same ability to use their talents and fulfil their potential.

Foundational equality

Everyone has equal moral value because of their common humanity.

Formal equality

• Rational individuals should be treated equally under the law

• Mary Wollstonecraft argued that this should extended to women because women are capable of rational thought

Classical liberals on equality and social justice (meritocracy)

• Individuals who exhibit talent and effort are fairly rewarded more than those without these qualities

• Possible in a just society where people are given formal equality

• Oppose state-led redistribution

• This is because it infringes on individuals freedoms and property rights

• Inequality as the natural result of differing talent, effort and choices within a free society

• So long as competition is fair and voluntary, unequal outcomes are considered just

Examples of classical liberals being supportive of meritocracy

• Thomas Jefferson believed in a society where people could rise based on their talents, rather than social status or connections

Modern liberals on equality and social justice (equality of opportunity)

• Formal equality is not enough to ensure equality of opportunity

• The state is necessary in order to remove social and economic barriers

• Policies such as progressive taxation, welfare provisions and equal access to education and healthcare are justified to level the playing field

• Betty Friedan argues that this includes challenging patriarchal views of the role of women in society

• This allows for all individuals to flourish

Agreements and disagreements amongst liberals: equality and social justice

• The extent to equality

• Privilege and redistribution (progressive taxation) to address privilege

• Civil rights and the extent of social justice is necessary

Agreements about equality and social justice: foundational and formal equality

Classical and modern liberals agree that:

• All individuals have the same legal rights and protections regardless of background

• All individuals also have the same moral value

• This includes women (Mary Wollstonecraft)

Disagreements about equality and social justice: substantive equality

• Classical liberals puts a great emphasis on foundational and formal equality

• They are accepting of inequality to a greater degree

• This is because they see inequality as the natural result of differing talent, effort and choices within a free society

• Modern liberals argue that equality of opportunity requires addressing social and economic barriers

• Inequality is only acceptable if it benefits the worst off (John Rawls)

• This includes addressing the patriarchal views of the role of women (Betty Friedan)

Agreements about equality and social justice: opposition to inherited privilege

Classical and modern liberals agree that:

• Aristocracy and legally enforced hierarchies should be rejected

• Social advancement should be merit-based

Disagreements about equality and social justice: state-led redistribution

• Classical liberals disagree with state-led distribution to address privilege

• They argue that it infringes on individual freedoms freedoms and property rights

• Inequality is natural and the state is exceeding its bounds

• It’s only role to prevent the dangers of the state of nature (John Locke)

• Modern liberals argue that privilege must be addressed through state-led distribution

• It promotes fairness and creates greater equality of opportunity

• Inequality is only acceptable if it benefits the worst off (John Rawls)

Agreement about equality and social justice: civil rights

Classical and modern liberals agree that:

• Individuals have equal civil and political rights

• This extends to women because women capable of reason (Mary Wollstonecraft)

• Civil rights are essential to individual freedom and dignity

Disagreements about equality and social justice: the extent of social justice

• Classical liberals are sceptical of social justice

• Individuals are rational

• This means that they are capable of pursing their own interests

• Modern liberals see social justice as central to liberal values

• This is because human decision-making is limited by social and economic barriers, education and access to information

• Women are limited by the patriarchal views of the role of women (Betty Friedan)

Liberal democracy

• The state’s legitimacy is derived by the consent of the governed through elections

• There are checks and balances placed on the state in order to prevent tyranny and abuses of power (arbitrary rule)

• The state can also be held accountable to its citizens

Reasons liberals support democracy

• The state’s legitimacy depends on a ‘social contact’ (John Locke)

• Citizens renew their consent to governed in elections

• Democracy allows the state to be held to account

Reasons liberals limit democracy

• Preventing a ‘tyranny of the majority’ (John Stuart Mill)

• This is where the majority restricts the freedoms of minorities

• The Founding Fathers introduced the ‘electoral college’ system to prevent this

• The public is ill-informed

• Classical liberals such as John Stuart Mill supported giving votes to the educated

Classical liberals on liberal democracy

• Protecting individual freedoms and limiting state power

• Democratic participation is important but they are more concerned with preventing a tyranny of majority

• Checks and balances are necessary to ensure the government remains accountable

• Representatives are better placed to govern rationally and protect long-term freedoms

• It is not a tool for social reform

• Favours gradual progress

Modern liberals on liberal democracy

• Means of achieving equality and social justice

• Democratic participation is valuable because it allows individuals to influence decisions that shape their lives

• Support expansion of participation through wider suffrage, protecting minority rights and decentralisation

• Democratic governments are viewed as the active agents of reform

Agreements and disagreements amongst liberals: liberal democracy

• The necessity and purpose of democracy

• Limits on majority rule and the extent of democratic participation

• Representative institutions and the role of the state in representation

Agreements about liberal democracy: the necessity of liberal democracy

Classical and modern liberals agree that:

• The state’s legitimacy is determined by the consent of its citizens (social contract) (John Locke)

• The power of the state should be limited by checks and balances such as a liberal democracy

Disagreements about liberal democracy: the purpose of democracy

• Classical liberals see democracy as means to limit the power of the state no protecting individual freedoms

• Modern liberals view it as a tool for social and economic reform

Agreements about liberal democracy: limits on majority rule

Classical and modern liberals agree that:

• Democracy must protect minority rights and individual freedoms in order to prevent a tyranny of the majority (John Stuart Mill)

Disagreements about liberal democracy: the extent of democratic participation

• Classical liberals are more concerned with preventing a tyranny of the majority

• They prioritise representative democracy

• They believe that representatives are better-placed to govern rationally and protect long-term individual freedoms

• Modern liberals endorse expanding participation through wider suffrage, protecting minority rights and decentralisation

Agreements about liberal democracy: representative institutions

Classical and modern liberals agree that:

• Participation must be balanced with elected representatives

• Elected representative are necessary for stability and rational decision-making

Disagreements about liberal democracy: the role of the state in a liberal democracy

• Classical liberals fear democratic overreach

• Democracy should be limited to prevent a tyranny of the majority (John Stuart Mill) and the state’s role is to prevent the dangers of a state of nature (John Locke)

• Modern liberals believe that democratically mandated power can be used to promote equality and welfare