Psychology's roots

Critical Thinking

Thinking that does not automatically accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, assesses the source, uncovers hidden values, weighs evidence, and assesses conclusions.

Structuralism

An early school of thought promoted by Wundt that focused on the structure of the human mind

functionalism

An early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin that focused on how the mind functions.

behaviorism

The view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2)

Humanistic Psychology

An earlier psychological perspective that emphasized human growth potential

Cognitive Psychology

The study of the mental processes involved in perceiving, learning, remembering, thinking, communicating, and solving problems.

Cognitive Neuroscience

The interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with mental activity (perception, thinking, memory, and language).

Psychology

The science of behavior and mental processes.

Culture

The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and values shared by a group of people and passed on from one generation to the next.

biopsychosocial approach

An approach that integrates different but complementary views from biological, psychological, and social-cultural viewpoints.

Nature - nurture issue

The age-old controversy over the relative influence of genes and experience in the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today’s psychological science views traits and behaviors as arising from the interaction of nature and nurture.

Dual Processing

The principle that our mind processes information at the same time on separate conscious and unconscious tracks.

Counseling Psychology

A branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or relationships) and in achieving greater well-being.

Clinical Psychology

A branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders

Psychiatry

A branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy.

Community Psychology

A branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions (such as schools and neighborhoods) affect individuals and groups.

Positive Psychology

The scientific study of human flourishing, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive.

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that we could have predicted it. (Also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.)

Peer Reviewers

Scientific experts who evaluate a research article’s theory, originality, and accuracy

Theory

An explanation using principles that organize observations and predict behaviors or events.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

Operational Definition

A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures (operations) used in a research study. For example, researchers may operationally define helping as how many dollars people donate. (Also known as operationalization.)

Replication

Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to determine whether the basic finding can be reproduced.

Preregistration

Publicly communicating planned study design, hypotheses, data collection, and analyses.

Case Study

A descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

Naturalistic Observation

A descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without changing or controlling the situation.

Survey

A descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of that group.

Population

All those in a group being studied, from which random samples may be drawn. (Note: Except for national studies, this does not refer to a country’s whole population.)

Random Sample

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

Correlation

A measure of the extent to which two variables relate to each other, and thus of how well either one predicts the other. The correlation coefficient is the mathematical expression of the direction and strength of the relationship between two things, ranging from r = −1.00 to +1.00, with r = 0.00 indicating no relationship.

Experiment

A method in which researchers vary one or more variables (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, researchers aim to control other variables that may change the research outcome.  

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing any preexisting differences between the groups.

Experimental Group

In an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that  is, to one version of the independent variable.

Control Group

In an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment;  the control group serves as a  comparison with the experimental  group for judging the effect of the treatment.

Placebo

An inactive substance or condition that is sometimes given to those in a control group in place of the treatment given to the experimental group.

Double Blind Procedure

In an experiment, a procedure in which both the participants and the research staff are uninformed (blind) about who has received the treatment or a placebo.

Placebo Effect

Results caused by expectations alone.

Independent Variable

In an experiment, the variable that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

Confounding Variable

In an experiment, an extraneous variable (not the variable being studied) that might influence a study’s results.

Dependent Variable

In an experiment, the variable that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated.

Informed Consent

Permission based on researchers giving people enough information about a study to enable them to decide whether they wish to participate.

Debriefing

After an experiment ends, explaining to participants the study’s purpose and any deceptions researchers used.

Testing Effect

Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning.

SQ3R

A study method incorporating five steps: Survey, Question, Read, Retrieve, Review.