Rhetorical Terms

The rhetorical situation

Speaker, Purpose, Audience, Context, Exigence (& what each of these mean)

Aristotelian Triangle

a diagram that illustrates the relationships between speaker, subject, and audience in a rhetorical situation

ethos

Greek for “character”, established of speakers in what they say and who they are; appeals to audience’s trust in the character, authority, or expertise of speaker

logos

Greek for “embodied thought”, appeals to reason and logic by offering clear, rational ideas and using specific details, examples, facts, statistics, or expert testimony as backing for claims; usually primary mode to elicit audience agreement

pathos

Greek for “suffering” or “experience”, appeals to specific emotions like fear, patriotism, prejudices, anger, or hope; usually primary mode to elicit audience action

tone

The speaker’s attitude toward the subject as revealed by his or her choice of language.

style

Examining sentence structure and word choice to discover meaning, purpose and effect of a text.

archaic language

using language that is antiquated (old-fashioned)

alliteration

use of words with same consonant sound close together

colloquialism

using language that reflects the way people actually speak (slang)

connotation

the implied or contextualized meaning that underlies the main meaning of a word (consider emotional or intellectual interpretation)

denotation

the literal, dictionary definition of a word

ellipsis

omitting some parts of a sentence to give the reader a chance to fill the gaps

jargon

using language that is specific to a place, period, position, or occupation

repetition

just as it sounds, in order to emphasize or reiterate

simple

one independent clause

complex

one independent clause and one dependent clause

compound

two independent clauses joined with a conjunction

compound-complex

more than one sentence joined by a conjunction, one of which is complex; a compound sentence with a dependent, or subordinate clause.

cumulative sentence

sentence where main clause is at the beginning and then more is added on

hortative sentence

sentence that exhorts, urges, entreats, implores, or calls to action

imperative sentence

sentence that commands or demands

periodic sentence

sentence where main clause is withheld until the end

anaphora

repetition of words/phrases at beginning of successive phrases, clauses, lines

antimetabole/chiasmus

repetition of words in reverse order

antithesis

opposition or contrast of ideas/words in a parallel construction

asyndeton

omission of conjunctions between coordinate phrases, clauses, words (speeds up)

syndeton

addition of multiple conjunctions between coordinate phrases, clauses, words (slows down)

juxtaposition

placements of two things closely together to emphasize differences

parallelism

similarity of structure in a pair or series of related words, phrases, clauses

alliteration

repetition of the same sound beginning several words or syllables in sequence.

allusion

reference to another source (e.g. Bible, mythology, poem, work of art)

anecdote

a usually short narrative of an interesting, amusing, or biographical incident used to explain, illustrate, or persuade

antecedent*

a thing or event that existed before or logically precedes another; what pronouns refer to

assonance

repeating vowel sounds

consonance

repetition of identical or similar consonants in neighboring words

epithet*

a characterizing word or phrase accompanying or occurring in place of the name; a disparaging or abusive word or phrase

euphemism*

the substitution of an agreeable or inoffensive expression for one that may offend

extended metaphor*

a comparison between two unlike things that continues throughout a series of sentences

hyperbole

deliberate exaggeration

imagery

descriptive language appealing to all five senses - sight, sound, touch, smell, taste - words used to paint a picture

maxim*

a short, pithy statement expressing a general truth or rule of conduct

metaphor

comparison that replaces one object for another (stronger than simile)

metonymy

the substitution of the name for an attribute of the thing meant

motif

repeating symbol throughout a text

oxymoron

using two contradictory words next to each other

paradox

a statement that seems contradictory or opposed to common sense and yet is perhaps true

personification

describing an inanimate object as if it were a person

rhetorical question

posing a question for effect rather than to get an answer

simile

comparison that uses “like” or “as”

symbol

object used to represent an idea/theme

synecdoche

using one part to represent a whole

tone

author’s attitude toward a subject and/or character

zeugma

using two different meanings of the same word within a sentence/line

open

does not list all the points the writer intends to include, is usually inductive in its claim, and suggests a more abstract or universal claim of value

closed

makes a more specific, limited claim of value, includes a list of the main points to follow

counter-argument

usually starts with summary of primary counterargument, is preceded by “but” or “although”, and is usually followed by the writer’s primary claim

claims of fact

asserts that something is true or not; is arguable on basis of fact

claims of value

asserts something is good or bad, right or wrong, or is a cause or effect; draws conclusions from claims of facts.

claims of policy

suggests a course of action as a result of the claims of fact and value

First-hand evidence

based on something the writer knows from personal experience, observations, or general knowledge of events.

Second-hand evidence

accessed through research, reading, investigation, interviews, polls.

concession

an acknowledgement that an opposing argument may be true or reasonable, usually accompanied by a refutation

refutation

denial of the validity of an opposing argument in part or in whole, usually accompanied by a concession in order to sound more reasonable.

qualify (a claim)

to make a claim about qualities, or what something is, or is caused by, about what something affects, or about the nature or properties of a thing to gain an understanding of underlying reasons, opinions, and motivations. To make a “qualifying claim” is to provide insights into a problem or help to develop ideas or hypotheses. Words such as “usually,” “often,” “frequently,” “many,” “most,” “in general,”

quantify (a claim)

claims and information about quantities; generating numerical data or statistics. It is used to quantify attitudes, opinions, behaviors, and other defined variables, and is usually limited to “how much”, “how many”, “how often” “how famous/popular”

ad hominem

(“against the man”) attacking character of speaker instead of addressing topic

appeal to false authority

using someone as “expert” who is not actually an expert

faulty analogy

drawing a comparison between two things that is logically irrelevant

red herrings

introducing new and unrelated topic before addressing argument topic

non sequitur

(“does not follow”)claim where the reason doesn’t actually connect logically

post hoc ergo propter hoc (faulty causality)

(“after this, therefore because of this”) assuming that because one event or action follows another, the first causes the second

slippery slope (false dilemma)

scare tactic that claims one action will lead to another, more extreme action presenting two extreme options as the only possibilities

straw man

oversimplifying an example to ridicule or refute opponent

bandwagon appeal

evidence boils down to “everybody’s doing it, so it must be good”

circular reasoning

presenting the claim as if it is the evidence

hasty generalization

using a single anecdote or example to make major/larger point

stack the deck

argument that shows only one side of the story and refuses to even admit the existence of counterargument