Rhetorical Terms

Term

Definition

Example 

The rhetorical situation

Speaker, Purpose, Audience, Context, Exigence (& what each of these mean)

S - credibility/background/bias

P - motive/argument 

A - demographics/biases

C - time/place/major events

E - catalyst/impact

Aristotelian Triangle

a diagram that illustrates the relationships between speaker, subject, and audience in a rhetorical situation

(see visual on ppt. or in Unit 1 packet)

ethos

Greek for “character”, established of speakers in what they say and who they are; appeals to audience’s trust in the character, authority, or expertise of speaker

Qualifications, personal experience; 1st person, specialized language

logos

Greek for “embodied thought”, appeals to reason and logic by offering clear, rational ideas and using specific details, examples, facts, statistics, or expert testimony as backing for claims; usually primary mode to elicit audience agreement 

Facts, common sense, cause/ effect, compare/ contrast, statistics, precedent, research

pathos

Greek for “suffering” or “experience”, appeals to specific emotions like fear, patriotism, prejudices, anger, or hope; usually primary mode to elicit audience action 

Imagery, figurative language, literary devices, connotative diction, effective anecdotes

tone

The speaker’s attitude toward the subject as revealed by his or her choice of language.

The speaker feels outraged towards his intended audience.

style

Examining sentence structure and word choice to discover meaning, purpose and effect of a text. 

The author uses archaic language and repetition to remind readers of the importance of history.

Term

Definition

Example 

archaic language

using language that is antiquated (old-fashioned)

Beliefs for which our forebears fought.

alliteration

use of words with same consonant sound close together

Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers.

colloquialism

using language that reflects the way people actually speak (slang)

You’re nuts! Don’t be a chicken;

I wasn’t born yesterday.

connotation

the implied or contextualized meaning that underlies the main meaning of a word (consider emotional or intellectual interpretation)

She’s feeling blue today; In Shakespeare’s “Sonnet 18,” the line “Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day” connotes beauty and serenity.

denotation

the literal, dictionary definition of a word

The blueberry is very blue; 

ellipsis

omitting some parts of a sentence to give the reader a chance to fill the gaps

I know I saw my keys somewhere . . .

I’m not sure what to do…

jargon

using language that is specific to a place, period, position, or occupation

Bang for the buck (business jargon) 

Take this offline (office jargon) 

Blue state (political jargon)

repetition

just as it sounds, in order to emphasize or reiterate

When I was a child, I talked like a child, I thought like a child, I reasoned like a child.

Term

Definition

Example 

simple

one independent clause

Joe waited for the train.

complex

one independent clause and one dependent clause

While he waited at the train station, Joe realized that the train was late.

compound

two independent clauses joined with a conjunction

Joe waited for the train, but the train was late.

compound-

complex

more than one sentence joined by a conjunction, one of which is complex; a compound sentence with a dependent, or subordinate clause.

Though Joe realized the train was late, he decided to wait, 

 and he remained quite calm.

cumulative sentence

sentence where main clause is at the beginning and then more is added on 

But neither can two great and powerful groups of nations take comfort from our present course -- both sides overburdened by the cost of modern weapons, both rightly alarmed by the steady spread of the deadly atom, yet both racing to alter that uncertain balance of terror that stays the hand of mankind’s final war.

hortative sentence

sentence that exhorts, urges, entreats, implores, or calls to action

Let both sides explore what problems unite us instead of belaboring those problems which divide us.

imperative sentence

sentence that commands or demands

My fellow citizens of the world: ask not what America will do for you, but what together we can do for the freedom of man.

periodic sentence

sentence where main clause is withheld until the end

To that world assembly of sovereign states, the United Nations, our last best hope in a new age where the instruments of war have far outpaced the instruments of peace, we renew our pledge of support...

Term

Definition

Example 

anaphora

repetition of words/phrases at beginning of successive phrases, clauses, lines

...not as a call to bear arms, though arms we need -- not as a call to battle, though embattled we are...

antimetabole/

chiasmus 

repetition of words in reverse order

[A]sk not what your country can do for you -- ask what you can do for your country.

antithesis 

opposition or contrast of ideas/words in a parallel construction

[W]e shall...support any friend, oppose any foe...

asyndeton 

omission of conjunctions between coordinate phrases, clauses, words (speeds up)

He eats, drinks, sleeps.

syndeton

addition of multiple conjunctions between coordinate phrases, clauses, words (slows down)

He eats and drinks and sleeps.

juxtaposition

placements of two things closely together to emphasize differences 

[W]e are the heirs of that first revolution. Let the word go forth… that the torch has been passed to a new generation of Americans --- born in this century...

parallelism

similarity of structure in a pair or series of related words, phrases, clauses

Let both sides explore...Let both sides, for the first time, formulate serious and precise 

proposals...Let both sides seek to invoke...Let both sides unite to heed...

Term

Definition

Example 

alliteration

repetition of the same sound beginning several words or syllables in sequence.

Let us go forth to lead the land we love...

allusion

reference to another source (e.g. Bible, mythology, poem, work of art) 

Let both sides unite to heed in all corners of the earth the command of Isaiah...

anecdote

a usually short narrative of an interesting, amusing, or biographical incident used to explain, illustrate, or persuade

When I was a child, my family went on a summer vacation to the Great Smoky Mountains every year. One year, my aunt saw a black bear while she was hiking. She was so terrified, she ended up sitting on a boulder for an hour just to make sure it had gotten far enough away from her. She still won't go hiking alone anywhere.

antecedent*

a thing or event that existed before or logically precedes another; what pronouns refer to

Tell the professor I'll see him tonight. ("The professor" is the antecedent of the pronoun "him.")

assonance

repeating vowel sounds

Go slow over the road

Mike’s bike has bright white stripes.

consonance

repetition of identical or similar consonants in neighboring words 

He struck a streak of bad luck.

Norm the worm took the garden by a storm.

epithet*

a characterizing word or phrase accompanying or occurring in place of the name; a disparaging or abusive word or phrase

Elvis Presley = “The King of Rock and Roll” 

A pet  dog = “man’s best friend”

euphemism*

the substitution of an agreeable or inoffensive expression for one that may offend

I’m feeling under the weather; 

He passed away.

extended metaphor*

a comparison between two unlike things that continues throughout a series of sentences

You’re a snake! Everything you hiss out of your mouth is a lie.

hyperbole

deliberate exaggeration

The class was dying of laughter.

I’m so confused my head is spinning.

imagery 

descriptive language appealing to all five senses - sight, sound, touch, smell, taste - words used to paint a picture

The color is repellant, almost revolting; a smoldering unclean yellow, strangely faded by the slow-turning sunlight.

maxim*

a short, pithy statement expressing a general truth or rule of conduct

If you can’t say something nice, don’t say anything at all

metaphor 

comparison that replaces one object for another (stronger than simile) 

And if a beachhead of cooperation may push back the jungle of suspicion...

metonymy

the substitution of the name for an attribute of the thing meant  

“suit” for “business executive” “the track” for “horse racing”

motif  

repeating symbol throughout a text

Water; blood; light; thirst 

oxymoron

using two contradictory words next to each other

peaceful revolution; jumbo shrimp

paradox

a statement that seems contradictory or opposed to common sense and yet is perhaps true 

The first rule about fight club is you don’t talk about fight club.

personification

describing an inanimate object as if it were a person

With history the final judge of our deeds

rhetorical question

posing a question for effect rather than to get an answer 

Will you join in that historic effort?

simile 

comparison that uses “like” or “as”

The bag was as light as a feather.

symbol

object used to represent an idea/theme

blood= guilt/shame water= purity/innocence 

synecdoche

using one part to represent a whole

Nice wheels! (wheels = car)
Boston sweeps the series against the Yankees! (Boston = the baseball team)

tone 

author’s attitude toward a subject and/or character

Mildly resentful; seethingly jealous 

zeugma 

using two different meanings of the same word within a sentence/line

When we bear arms, we bear a burden of responsibility (bear used literally and  figuratively)

Term

Definition

Example 

open

does not list all the points the writer intends to include, is usually inductive in its claim, and suggests a more abstract or universal claim of value

By inspiring the graduates to live courageously and then urging them to challenge adversity, Albright motivates the young women to break the glass ceiling and achieve equality.

closed

makes a more specific, limited claim of value, includes a list of the main points to follow

Albright strengthens the power of her speech through parallel structure, repetition of important values, and through personal experiences with empowered women to persuade them to persevere.

counter- argument

usually starts with summary of primary counterargument, is preceded by “but” or “although”, and is usually followed by the writer’s primary claim 

Many students would like to smoke on campus. Some people may rightly argue that if smoking on campus is not illegal, then it should be permitted; however, second-hand smoke may cause harm to those who have health issues like asthma, possibly putting them at risk.

Term

Definition

Example 

claims of fact 

asserts that something is true or not; is arguable on basis of fact

The number of suicides and homicides committed by teenagers, most often young men, has exploded in the last three decades. -Anna Quindlen

claims of value

asserts something is good or bad, right or wrong, or is a cause or effect; draws conclusions from claims of facts.

There’s a plague on all our houses, and since it doesn’t announce itself with lumps or spots or protest marches, it has gone unremarked in the quiet suburbs and busy cities where it has been laying waste. 

claims of policy

suggests a course of action as a result of the claims of fact and value

Yet one solution continues to elude us, and that is ending the ignorance about mental health, and moving it from the margins of care and into the mainstream where it belongs. 

First-hand evidence

based on something the writer knows from personal experience, observations, or general knowledge of events.

Personal experience, observations, anecdotes, current events, interviews, 

Second-hand evidence

accessed through research, reading, investigation, interviews, polls. 

factual and historical information, expert opinion, and quantitative data.

concession

an acknowledgement that an opposing argument may be true or reasonable, usually accompanied by a refutation

I agree that many students act and lie about being sick, so that they can avoid school for whatever reason. However, most students who do not come to school are actually sick.

refutation

denial of the validity of an opposing argument in part or in whole, usually accompanied by a concession in order to sound more reasonable. 

Now even as we speak, there are those who are preparing to divide us, the spin masters and negative ad peddlers who embrace the politics of anything goes. Well, I say to them tonight, there’s not a liberal America and a conservative America; there’s the United States of America. 

qualify (a claim)

to make a claim about qualities, or what something is, or is caused by, about what something affects,  or about the nature or properties of a thing to gain an understanding of underlying reasons, opinions, and motivations. To make a “qualifying claim” is to provide insights into a problem or help to develop ideas or hypotheses. Words such as “usually,” “often,” “frequently,” “many,” “most,” “in general,” 

In the end, the main character usually marries the best friend  in romantic comedies.

Until recently, vampires have always been portrayed as evil in horror movies.

quantify (a claim)

claims and information about quantities; generating numerical data or statistics. It is used to quantify attitudes, opinions,  behaviors, and other defined variables, and is usually limited to “how much”, “how  many”, “how often” “how famous/popular”

The main character is 10x more likely to fall in love in a comedy than a tragedy.

Vampires have 48% of the popular vote when it comes to character tropes. 

Term

Definition

Example 

ad hominem

(“against the man”) attacking character of speaker instead of addressing topic

A park in the community should not be renovated because the person supporting it was arrested during a domestic dispute.

appeal to false authority

using someone as “expert” who is not actually an expert

Ron Burgundy, a fictional character from the movie Anchorman, advertises for Dodge Durango.

faulty analogy

drawing a comparison between two things that is logically irrelevant

Since we put animals who are in irreversible pain out of their misery, we should do the same for people.

red herrings

introducing new and unrelated topic before addressing argument topic

Son: "Wow, Dad, it's really hard to make a living on my salary." Father: "Consider yourself lucky, son. Why, when I was your age, I only made $40 a week."

Term

Definition

Example 

non sequitur 

(“does not follow”)claim where the reason doesn’t actually connect logically

Your dog is adorable. I have three younger brothers.

post hoc ergo propter hoc (faulty causality)

(“after this, therefore because of this”) assuming that because one event or action follows another, the first causes the second

We elected Johnson as president and look where it got us: hurricanes, floods, stock market crashes.

slippery slope (false dilemma)

scare tactic that claims one action will lead to another, more extreme action presenting two extreme options as the only possibilities

Either we agree to higher taxes, or our grandchildren will be mired in debt.

straw man

oversimplifying an example to ridicule or refute opponent

Politician X proposes that we put astronauts on Mars in the next four years. Politician Y ridicules this proposal by saying that his opponent is looking for “little green men in outer space.”

Term

Definition

Example 

bandwagon appeal 

evidence boils down to “everybody’s doing it, so it must be good”

You should vote for Rachel Johnson - she has a strong lead in the polls!

circular reasoning

presenting the claim as if it is the evidence

You can’t give me a C; I’m an A student!

hasty generalization

using a single anecdote or example to make major/larger point

Smoking isn’t bad for you; my great aunt smoked a pack a day and lived to be 90.

stack the deck

argument that shows only one side of the story and refuses to even admit the existence of counterargument

Our hot dogs now contain 10 percent less fat, (Although that may sound like good news, what we are not being told is that the hot dogs still contain 30 percent fat).