Physiology (bios43)

Physiology

Study of biological functions and processes

Pathophisiology

Body function in a diseased state

Homeostasis

Internal body conditions fluctuate but maintained within a narrow range or a set point

Sensors or receptors

Senses deviation from a set point

integrating center

Evaluates/interrogates info from sensors initiates proper output signal

Effector

Creates a response and corrects deviation

steps of negative feedback

Stimulus, sensor, integration, effector (opposes or removes stimulus)

Steps of Feedback Loop

Stimulus,sensor,input signal, integrating, output signal, target and Responsive

Steps of positive feedback

Stimulus, sensor, integration, effector (reinforces the stimulus)

Generate Hypothesis

Formulate a logical/ educated guess

independent variable

Manipulated test condition

dependent variable

Observed result based on independent variable

experimental group

receives test treatment

control group

the group that does not receive the test treatment.

X-axis (analyze data)

It is independent

Y-axis (analyze data)

It is dependent

Atoms

smallest unit of chemical elements

Cation

positively charged ion (lost electrons)

Anion

negatively charged ion (gained electrons)

covalent bonds

sharing of electrons

ionic bonds

Formed when one or more electrons are transferred from one atom to another

hydrogen bonds

weak attraction between a hydrogen atom and another atom

What is [OH-]=[H+]?

Neural; does not favor either sides

What is [OH-]>[H+]?

Basic; molecules absorbs protons

What is [H+]>[OH-]?

Acidic; molecule releases protons

pH scale

Measures the protons in a solution 0-14

Buffers

Any substances that moderates changes in ph

Monosaccharides

simple sugars (glucose, fructose, galactose)

five carbon sugars (pentose)

forms the sugar phosphate backbone of RNA(ribose) and DNA(deoxyribose)

Disaccharidases
Peptidases

Dehydration synthesis; sucrose(table sugar),maltose and lactose

Polysaccharides

glycogen and starch

Hydrolysis

A chemical process that splits a molecule by adding water.

Triglycerides (fats)

composed of 1 glycerol + 3 fatty acids

Phospholipids

A molecule that is a constituent of the inner bilayer of biological membranes, having a polar, hydrophilic head and a nonpolar, hydrophobic tail.

Steroids

Lipids molecules whose structure includes 4 linked carbon rings

Eicosanoids

modified 20 carbon fatty acids

Proteins

Composed of 20 different amino acids

Dipeptide

Two amino acids bonded together by a peptide bond

oligopeptides

2-9 amino acids

Polypeptides

10-100 amino acids

Protein(#amino acids)?

>100 amino acids

primary structure

linear sequence of amino acids

secondary structure

Sequence of amino acids, Alpha helix and Beta sheets

tertiary structure

Folding 2 structure into 3-D shape

quaternary structure

Tertiary structure combined

The subunits of nucleic acids are

nucleotides

nitrogenous base

An organic base that contains nitrogen, such as a purine or pyrimidine; a subunit of a nucleotide in DNA and RNA

Purine

have a double ring structure, Adenine and Guanine

Pyrimidine

have a single ring, Cytosine, Thymine and Uracil

In DNA, A pairs with

T (thymine)

In DNA, G pairs with

C (cytosine)

In RNA, A pairs with

U (uracil)

chemical rxns are

transformation of substances by forming/breaking covalent bonds

activaton energy

minimum amount of energy that must be supplied to initiate a chemical reaction

exergonic rxn

net release of bond energy

endergonic rxn

net input of bond energy

coupling rxn

energy released from exergonic rxn drives endergonic rxn

What does ATP stand for and what is it?

Adenosine triphosphate; high energy phosphate molecule required to provide energy for cellular function.

Enzymes

Catalysts for chemical reactions in living things

Specificity

substrates shape fits snuggly with enzyme's active site

Competition

substrates with similar structures compete for enzyme's active sites

Saturation

when

Isozymes

enzymes that catalyze the same reaction but under different conditions or in different tissues

proteolytic activation

converts inactive to active form by removing part of molecule

inorganic cofactors

ions permanently bound to enzyme

Coenzymes

organic cofactors

inhibitors

An agent that slows or interferes with a chemical action

Denaturation

loss of normal shape of a protein due to heat or other factor

Catabolism

Metabolic pathways that break down molecules, releasing energy.

Anabolism

Metabolic pathways that construct molecules, requiring energy.

End-product (feedback) inhibition

The inhibition of the first enzyme in a pathway by the end product of that pathway.

cellular respiration

Process that releases energy by breaking down glucose and other food molecules in the presence of oxygen

Glycolysis

first step in releasing the energy of glucose, in which a molecule of glucose is broken into two molecules of pyruvic acid

Pryruvate

This product of glycolysis is used and synthesized by many metabolic pathways. In energy generation, it can be either converted to lactate under anaerobic conditions, or broken down to water and carbon dioxide in the presence of oxygen, generating large amounts of ATP.

anaerobic respiration

Respiration that does not require oxygen, produces lactic acid

aerobic respiration

Respiration that requires oxygen, occurs in mitochondria

citric acid cycle

Completes the breakdown of glucose by oxidizing a derivative of pyruvate to carbon dioxide.

Electron Transport Chain (ETC)

A sequence of electron carrier molecules (membrane proteins) that shuttle electrons during the redox reactions that release energy used to make ATP.

steps of cellular respiration

glycolysis, pyruvate processing, citric acid cycle and electron transport chain

How many ATP are produced in glycolysis?

4 are formed, but 2 are used during glycolysis reactions, so net gain is 2.

How many ATP are produced in citric acid cycle?

2 ATP, 6 NADH, 2 FADH2

fed state metabolism

Insulin promotes glucose metabolism by cells

Glycogenesis

glucose to glycogen

Lipogenesis

the metabolic formation of fat

fasted state metabolism

glucagon promotes glucose release by cells

Glycogenolysis

breakdown of glycogen to glucose

protein metabolism

deaminates amino acids; forms urea; synthesizes plasma proteins; converts certain amino acids into other amino acids

Lipolysis

breakdown of fat

Steps of Lipolysis

Lipases,Glycerol, B-oxidation, and Acyl units

Gluconeogenesis

generates glucose from noncarbohydrate substrates

Diffusion

Uses kinetic energy of molecular movement and does not require an outside energy source

Osmosis

water movement across membrane in response to solute concentration gradient

vesicular transport

Materials move into or out of cell in vesicles

Phagocytosis

A type of endocytosis in which a cell engulfs large particles or whole cells

Endocytosis

process by which a cell takes material into the cell by infolding of the cell membrane

Pinocytosis

process by which a cell takes in liquid from the surrounding environment

receptor-mediated

substances bind to receptors in the membrane

Exocytosis

Process by which a cell releases large amounts of material

Hypotonic

Referring to a solution that, when surrounding a cell, will cause the cell to take up water cell gains water and swells

Tonicity

the ability of a surrounding solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water