Pathology Exam 3 missed Objectives

Basal Ganglia function

coordinates muscle contractions and inhibits unwanted movements

Thalamus function

integrates stimuli and influences consciousness

Hypothalamus

regulates body functions (temp, HR, appetite) and connects to endocrine system

Ependymal Cells

line the inside of brain ventricles and central canal of spinal cord

Four CNS support cells

microglia, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, ependymal cells

Meningocele

protrusion of meninges through a bony defect

Myelomeningocele

protrusion of meninges and a portion of the spinal cord through a bony defect

difference between concussion and contusion

concussion is when the brain is shaken or jarred, usually after blunt trauma. Contusion is a bruise on brain tissue that causes bleeding or swelling. 

four intracranial hemorrhage locations

epidural, subdural, subarachnoid, intracerebral

epidural hematoma

between skull and dura mater

subdural hematoma

between dura and arachnoid

subarachnoid hemorrhage

between arachnoid and pia

intracerebral hemorrhage

bleeding directly into cerebral tissue

Meningitis

inflammation of meninges caused by bacteria or viruses

encephalitis

inflammation of the brain, caused by viruses

myelitis

inflammation of the spinal cord, caused by bacteria or viruses

abscesses in brain

a focal infection caused by bacteria

Alzheimer’s disease

atrophy of frontal and temporal cortex, progressive loss of cognitive and motor functions

Parkinson’s disease

disorder of subcortex that involves tremor, rigidity, and bradykinesia, and postural instability. Can also include dementia and depression.

ALS

loss of motor neurons that causes motor weakness and progressive muscle wasting. Loss of respiratory muscle function eventually leads to death.

Types of CNS neoplasia

Gliomas (support cell tumors), meningiomas, and metastatic tumors

most common brain neoplasm

glioma

How can alcohol abuse affect the nervous system?

neurotoxicity and metabolic/nutritional issues from liver damage

causes of neuogenic atrophy

injury to nerves and loss of normal innervation, can be upper motor neuron or lower motor neuron injury

signs of neurogenic atrophy

muscle atrophy because the nerve that transmits signal has atrophied

Causes of myasthenia gravis

autoimmune disease where the body makes antibodies that attach ACh receptors. Also associated with thymus abnormalities

Symptoms of myasthenia gravis

muscle weakness and fatiguability, especially in facial muscles. Specifically ptosis (drooping eyelid), diplopia (double vision), difficulty chewing, and severely respiratory muscle paralysis and death

Duchenne Muscular dystrophy

most common muscular dystrophy which leads to muscle weakness and early death. Most common in boys

Becker dystrophy

similar to Duchenne but more mild, onset is later and progression is lower

Other muscle dystrophies

limb-girdle and myotonic, both manifest in both genders during adulthood.

consequences of mechanical muscle injuries

rupture, hematoma, paralysis, myoglobinuria

Types of myositis and symptoms

infectious and immune, pain, weakness, morning stiffness, difficulty moving

benign muscle tumors

noncancerous, lipoma, fibroma, hemangioma

locally invasive muscle tumors

invade nearby tissues but don’t metastasize, desmoid tumors and fibromatoses

malignant tumors

cancerous, rhabdomyosarcoma, leiomyosarcoma, liposarcoma

Cellular components of a long bone

osteocytes (cells), osteoid (matrix), calcium phosphate, osteoblasts (form bone), osteclasts (resorb bone), periosteum (external surface covering)

Structural components of bone

compact bone, spongy bone, diaphysis, epiphyses, metaphysis

components of synovial joint

connective tissue capsule, synovial fluid, cartilage caps, ligaments

Osteoporosis

reduction of total bone mass, prevalent in older adults

osteomalacia

softening of bones due to poor mineralization. Known as rickets in children but found in older adults with hip fractures

renal osteodystrophy

bone changes due to chronic renal failure, decreased phosphorus and calcium, causing bone to resorb itself

Paget disease

chonic disease where there is abnormal bone thickening leading to disorganized bone tissue prone to fracture.

consequences of joint dislocation

tearing of support tissues, bleeding into or around the joint

four stages of fracture healing

hematoma formation, graunlation tissue formation, bony callus formation, remodeling

types of malignant bone tumors

osteosarcoma (bone) , chondrosarcoma (cartilage), ewing sarcoma (bone and soft tissue)

Secretory function of kidneys

secretes renin: regulates blood pressure and erythropoietin: stimualtes RBC production

nephrotic syndrome

protein/albumin filtrate leak, symptoms are proteinuria and hypoalbuminia. Normal blood pressure

nephritic syndrome

RBC filtrate leak, hematuria and hypertension

effects of diabetes on kidneys

diabetic glomerulosclerosis, vascular changes, papillary necrosis

long-term complications of diabetes on kidneys

proteinuria, chronic renal insufficiency

acute renal failure

result of an injury, toxin exposure, or hypoperfusion. Rapid symptoms but can be treated with dialysis. Damage usually effects renal tubules.

Chronic Renal Failure

result of long term, recurrent damage, long-term process that requires eventual dialysis. Leads to small kidneys with loss of parenchyma/cortex and fibrosis

Renal insufficiency

decreased glomerular filtration. Initial stage of function loss

Renal failure

severe loss of function that requires eventual dialysis. Has higher BUN and Creatinine than insufficiency

symptoms of renal failure

high bp, increased BUN and creatinine, water retention, nausea & vomiting, electrolyte imbalances, arrthymia, degreated GFR

Pre-renal failure

hypoperfusion or reduced blood supply to kidney, hypovolaemic shock or severe heart failure

Renal Parenchymal failure

problems within kidney tissue, usually damage to glomeruli or tubules. Acute glomerulonephritis or direct tubular toxicity

post renal failure

problems after the kidney, bladder outflow obstruction or bilateral ureteric obstruction

consequences of UTIs

kidney damage which can progress to renal failure, abscesses, sepsis

types of kidney stones

calcium, struvite, uric acid, cystine

symptoms is kidney stones

lower back, belly, or side pain, pain when urinating, bloody, cloudy, or foul smelling urine

possible circulatory issues effecting the kidney

acute tubular necrosis, nephroangiosclerosis, atherosclerosis

acute tubular necrosis

hypoperfusion or ischemia to renal tubules, which can lead to acute renal failure

nephroangiosclerosis

chronic ischemia and hypertension that leads to scarring of tubules

renal cell carcinoma

most common kidney tumor, caused by smoking, obesity, HTN. Symptoms are flank pain, hematuria, or palpable mass

urothelial carcinoma

most common urinary tract neoplasm, typically in bladder. Caused by exposure to carcinogens or family history. Symptoms are hematuria and dysuria

Wilms Tumor

most common pediatric kidney cancer, genetic factors, symptoms are an abdominal mass

pre-hepatic causes of jaundice

increased breakdown of RBCs that overwhelms the liver’s ability to process bilirubin. Sickle cell or transfusion reactions

Hepatic causes of jaundice

damage to hepatocytes: hepatitis, cirrhosis, certain drugs

post-hepatic causes of jaundice

obstruction of bile ducts (gallstones, scar tissue, tumors)

Hepatitis C

Blood borne, accidental needle sticks, multiple sex partners. High rate of progression to chronic hepatitis, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma.

Hepatitis D

Blood borne, requires HBV for replication. Can acceleration progression to cirrhosis in HBV

Hepatitis E

fecal-oral route, often waterborne, no risk for chronic hepatitis or carrier state

Symptoms of cirrhosis

jaundice, ascites, splenomagaly, portal HTN, hypoalbuinemia

Sequelae of cirrhosis

esophageal varices, hepatorenal syndrome, metabolic disturbances like endocrine dysfunction and anemia

steatohepatitis

liver inflammation caused by fatty deposits, often caused by chronic alcohol abuse or metabolic issues

Gilbert disease

intermittent jaundice due to bilirubin metabolism defect- hereditary

Hemochromatosis

excessive iron accumulation in the body, which can lead to cirrhosis - hereditary

wilson disease

copper metabolism defect that primary effects the liver, brain, and eyes- hereditary

alpha1-antitrypsin deficiency

causes emphysema and cirrhosis- hereditary

primary biliary cholangitis

destruction of intrahepatic ducts, predominately middle aged women, associated with antimitochondrial antibodies, can progress to cirrhosis

primary sclerosing cholangitis

destruction/fibrosis of intrahepatic and extrahepatic biliary ducts, predominately adult men, associated with IBD, can progress to cirrhosis and cholangiocarcinoma

ascending cholangitis

bacteria ascend from the duodenum via bile ducts and ends up in liver. Associated with biliary obstruction

pylephlebitis abscesses

bacteria enter the liver though the portal vein. Can infect people with IBD or infected diverticula

types of gallstones

cholesterol and pigmentary

Hepatocellular carcinoma

most common primary liver tumor, associated with cirrhosis

cholangiocarcinoma

malignant tumor of bile ducts, associated with primary sclerosing cholangitis and liver fluke infection

gallbladder cancer

malignant tumor associated with gallstones and exposure to toxins, poor prognosis

indications of liver transplant

end-stage liver disease, acute liver necrosis, major vascular injury, major biliary disease, certain metabolic disorders

Contraindications of liver transplant

malignancies, severe cardiopulmonary disease, active substance abuse, end-stage disease that is too advanced

long term effects of diabetes

atherosclerosis, diabetic nephropathy, diabetic retinopathy, cataracts, diabetic neuropathy