Chapter 14: Social Influences (14.1 & 14.2 of Textbook)

Parental Behaviour

1. Direct Instruction

2. Observing: imitation, counterimitation

3. Feedback

What is direct instruction?

• Telling children what to do, when & why

• Providing explanations helps children develop social & emotional skills

• E.g, explaining why sharing is positive

What is Observing?

• Children learn from watching others

• Imitation: performing actions they see are rewarding (e.g., doing chores)

• Counterimitation: learning what should not be done

  • E.g., Learning to not skip school when older sibling is punished for doing so

What is Feedback?

• Reinforcement or punishment to increase or decrease behaviour, respectively

• Parents often unwittingly reinforce behaviours they want to prevent

• Negative reinforcement trap: When parents fail to enforce a rule because they “give in” to a child’s negative behaviours

  • E.g., Letting a child stay up past bedtime because they are whining

• To be effective, punishment needs to be…

  • Administered promptly and consistently

  • Administered by a person with whom the child has a warm affectionate relationship

  • Accompanied by an explanation and suggestions for future ways of behaving

What are the 4 styles of parenting?

1. Authoritarian

2. Authoritative

3. Permissive

4. Uninvolved

What is Authoritarian Parenting Style? What is the influence of this parenting style on children?

• High control, little warmth

• Enforce rules with little discussion, little give and take with children

What is Authoritative Parenting Style? What is the influence of this parenting style on children?

• High control, high warmth

• Explain rules with discussion

• Responsible, self-reliant, friendly, higher academic performance

What is Permissive Parenting Style? What are its influence on the child?

• Low control, high warmth

• Accept child’s behaviour with little/infrequent punishment

• Impulsive, little self-control

What is Uninvolved Parenting Style?

• Low control, low warmth

• Provide for basic physical & emotional needs but little else & limited emotional involvement

• Poor school performance, often aggressive

What are some Variations in Parenting Style Associated with Socioeconomic Status and Culture?

Socioeconomic status

• Higher SES parents are often more authoritative & lower SES parents more authoritarian

• Perhaps due to educational differences leading to a more nuanced view of development & the need for a child centered approach

• Could also be related to increased stress among lower SES parents

Culture

• East-Asian culture emphasizes role of parent as ‘teacher’ & the need for emotional restraint for group harmony

Development of Peer Interactions

Developmental sequence…

Nonsocial

• Play alone or watch others

Parallel

• Play alone but interested in what others are doing

Associative

• Engage in similar activities, talk or smile at one another & offer each other toys

Cooperative

• Organize play around a theme & take on specialized role depending on the theme

  • Becomes the norm by approx. 3.5 years

Make- Believe

• Make-believe play is facilitated by advances in language, memory, reasoning & understanding others thoughts, beliefs & feelings

• In play therapy, psychologists use make-believe play as a ‘window’ on internal psychological conflicts & the childs attempt to understand their world

What are Parental Roles in Preschoolers Play?

Playmate

• Scaffold & help make play more sophisticated (e.g., suggest new activities such as demonstrating how to wash dishes while pretending to play kitchen)

Social director

• facilitate interactions with peers (e.g., play dates; organized activities)

Coach

• Help children gain skills related to interacting with peers (e.g., initiating play, making joint decisions

Mediator

• Help resolve conflicts between peers during play by offering solutions, leading to more prolonged play interactions

Peer Interactions in Elementary School-Aged Children

In Elementary School…

• Peer networks expand

• Interactions are structured by adults (e.g., in the classroom)

• Interactions are also unstructured without adult supervision (e.g., playground at recess)

• Advances in cognition lead to…

  • Increased capacity to maintain play and resolve conflict

  • Increased variety in activities engaged in with peers

Friendships

• Friendships become more complex with age

  • Age 4-5: Like each other and enjoy playing together

  • Age 8-11: Trust and assistance

  • Adolescence: Intimacy and loyalty, making friends significant social and emotional supports

Who becomes friends?

• Propinquity: People in closer proximity are more likely to be friends

• Similarity in age, sex, attitudes, values, and ethnicity

  • Inter-ethnic friendships more common where the opportunity exists (e.g., GTA)

Groups

• Most groups have a dominance hierarchy

  • A leader to whom other group members defer

  • Among boys, usually most physically intimidating

  • Among girls and older boys, leaders have high self-esteem, good peer relations, and useful skills

• Peer pressure can be …

  • Negative : When it involves antisocial elements (e.g., stealing)

  • Positive : When it encourages prosocial activities (e.g., involvement in community projects)