HOSA Lab/Diagnostic Tests

Complete Blood Count (CBC)

eval of cellular components of blood, including red blood cell count, red blood cell indices, white blood cell count, white blood cell differential, hemoglobin, hematocrit, platelet count; sometimes called hemogram

Red Blood Count (RBC)

Count of erythrocytes in specimen of whole blood; adults >14 years should be 4.50-6 million/microliter, varying w/ age and gender; any elevated RBC indicative of disorders from erythremia, polycythemia, erythrocytosis, dehydration, burns, CV disease, pulmonary disease; reduced RBC indicate of disorders from anemias, bone marrow suppression, hemorrhage, thyroid disorders

Hemoglobin (Hgb)

Measurement of oxygen carrying pigment of red blood cells; adult male >14 has 13.5-16.5 G/DL, varying w/ age and gender; elevated indicative f many disorders (CHF, COPD, burns, diarrhea); reduced indicative of disorders (anemia, hemorrhage, liver diseases, pregnancy)

Hematocrit (HCT)

Measurement of percentage of red blood cells in a volume of whole blood; adult male 14+ 40-54% normal, varying w/ gender and age; elevated indicative of disorders (dehydration, burns, eclampsia, shock); reduced HCT indicative of disorders (bone marrow hyperplasia, CHF, fluid overload)

White Blood Count (WBC)

Count of white blood cells in a whole blood specimen; adult male 14+ 4.5-11.0 thousand/microliter, varies w/ gender and age; elevated WBC indicative of many disease; abnormal count should be evaluated and results eval w/ other tests to determine diagnosis; dec WBC indicative of many disorders

Differential White Blood Cells (Differential Leukocyte Count)

Assessment of percentage of leukocyte distribution in specimen of 100 white cells; For an adult: segmented neutrophils 40-65,  Band neutrophils 2-12, Eosinophils 0-4, Basophils 0-2, Monocytes 0-12, lymphocytes 20-50, reticulocytes 0.5-2; inc neutrophils indicative of disorders, as is dec in neutrophils; inc bands indicative primarily of pharyngitis; inc SEGs indicative of pernicious anemia; inc eosinophils indicative of many disorders, as is reduced; inc basophils indicative of many disorders, as is dec basophils; inc lymphocytes indicative of many disorders, as is dec lymphocytes; inc monocytes indicative of many disorders, as is dec monocytes for aplastic anemia, hairy-cell leukemia

Platelet Count (Thrombocyte Count)

Count of platelets in whole blood specimen; normal adult 150-450 thousand/microliter, varying w/ age; inc and dec platelet count indicative of disorders

Albumin

Measurement of ½ major protein factions of blood; a normal adult has 3.1-4.5 g/dL; inc levels and dec levels indicative of disorder

Alkaline Phosphatase

Measurement of enzyme found in bone, liver, intestine, placenta; a normal adult has 50-136 U/L; elevated and below-normal levels indicative of many disorders

Aspartate Aminotransferase (AST)

Measurement of enzyme found primarily in heart, liver, muscle; normal adult has 15-37 U/L; elevated and reduced levels indicative of many disorders

Bilirubin

Byproduct of hemoglobin breakdown, prod by liver, spleen, bone marrow; in normal adult: total <1.0mg/dL, direct 0-0.3 mg/dL, indirect 0.1-1.09 mg/dL; total is divided into direct version, secreted by intestinal tract, and indirect, which circulates the blood; various conditions cause inc in direct bilirubin

Calcium

Measurements of blood serum calcium levels; a normal adult has 8.3-9.9 mg/dL; calcium acts in bone formation, impulse conduction, myocardial/skeletal muscle contractions, blood clotting process; elevated serum Ca or dec serum levels indicative of many disorders

Creatinine

Measurement of indicator of renal function; normal adult male 0.8-1.3 mg/dL, varies w/ gender; serum creatinine excreted continually by renal system; elevated levels indicative of slowing glomerular filtration and other conditions; dec serum creatinine indicative of diabetic ketoacidosis and muscular dystrophy

Lactate Dehydrogenase

Measurement of body tissue intracellular enzyme released after tissue damage; normal adult has 45-102 U/L; elevated levels indicative of disorders; dec levels develops after radiation and ingestion of oxalates

Total Protein

Reflection of total amounts of albumin and globulins in blood serum; normal adult has 6.3-8.2 g/dL; inc levels indicative of disorders, as is dec levels

Urea Nitrogen / Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN)

Assessment of urea content in blood indicating functioning of renal glomeruli; normal adult male 9-21 mg/dL, varies w/ gender; elevated can be caused by prerenal (inadequate renal circulation or abnor high levels blood protein, renal (impaired renal filtration/excretion), postrenal (lower urinary tract obstruction) etiologies

Uric Acid

End-product of purine metabolism; normal adult male has 3.5-7.2 mg/dL, varies w/ gender; elevated indicative of disorder, as is reduced levels

Thyroid Tyroxine (T4)

Hormone prod by thyroid gland from iodide and thyroglobulin in response to stimulation by thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) from pituitary; T4 stimulates T3 prod; stimulates basal metabolism in negative feedback; influences TSH prod by negative feedback; normal adult male has 4.5-12.1 micrograms/dL, varies w/ gender; inc levels and dec levels indicative of disorders

Triiodothyronine (T3)

Stimulates basal metabolic rate for metabolism of carbs, lipids, protein synthesis, vitamin metabolism, bone calcium release; normal adult has 80-230 ng/dL; inc/dec levels indicative of certain disorders

Triiodothyronine Uptake (T3 Uptake)

Normal adult male has 33-40%, varying w/ gender

Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)

prod by anterior lobe of pituitary gland, stimulating prod and release of T3/4 by thyroid; normal adult has <10 microunits/mL; inc/dec levels indicative of disorders

Total Cholesterol

Cholesterol is widely distributed sterol facilitating absorption or transport of fatty acids; continuously synthesized within body; normal adult <29 has <200 mg/dL, varies w/ age; elevated/dec levels of serum cholesterol indicative of disorders

Triglycerides

Principal lipids in blood; simple fat compounds of three molecules of fatty acid, oleic, palmitic, stearic; normal adult female 20-29 has 10-100 mg/dL, varies w/ gender and age; elevated/dec levels indicative of disorders

HDL Cholesterol

high-density lipoprotein transports cholesterol and other lipids to liver for excretion; believed to reduce risk of coronary artery disease; normal adult male has 30-70 mg/dL, varies w/ gender; inc/dec levels indicative of disorders

LDL Cholesterol

Low-density lipoprotein has high cholesterol content, delivering lipids to body tissues; normal adult has 80-190 mg/dL; elevated/dec levels indicative of disorders

Chloride

Anion found predominantly in extracellular space; a normal adult has 97-106 mEq/L; inc blood serum Cl levels and reduced levels indicative of disorders

Potassium

Main cation of intracellular fluid; important in nerve conduction, muscle function, osmotic pressure, A/B balance, myocardial activity; a normal adult has 3.5-5.3 mEq/L; inc blood serum K levels and dec levels indicative of disorders

Sodium

Major cation of extracellular fluid, main base in blood; functions in chem maintenance of osmotic pressure, A/B balance, nerve transmission; normal adult has 134-146 mEq/L; inc blood serum levels of Na or dec levels indicative of disorder

Carbon Dioxide

Comes from bicarbonate in normal blood plasma; normal adult has 20-30 mEq/L; increased blood serum levels or dec levels indicative of disorders

Partial Thromboplastin Time (PTT)

Eval of functioning of coagulation sequence; PTT used for coagulation disorders and to monitor effectiveness of heparin therapy; normal values or standardized tests must be checked w/ lab due to various processes used; inc standard times or dec indicate disorder

Prothrombin Time (PT)

time measurement of time taken for clot formation after addition of reagent tissue thromboplastin and calcium to citrated plasma; in clotting process, prothrombin converts to thrombin; adequate vitamin K req for adequate prothrombin prod; test helps eval clotting mechanism and monitoring oral anticoagulant therapy; normal value 11-13 seconds, vary w/ lab; inc PT or red PT indicative of disorder

Fibrinogen

Protein prod in liver that circulates plasma; in presence of thrombin, enzyme prod by activation of clotting mechanism, fibrinogen cleaved to fibrin, an insoluble protein responsible for clot formation; 150-440 mg/dL for normal adult

Platelet Count (Thrombocyte Count)

Count of platelets in whole blood specimen; normal adult has 150,000-450,000/microliter; inc/dec platelet count indicative of disorder

Bleeding Time

Screening test for coagulation disorder, a measurement of time req for platelet clot to form; normally 3-10 minutes; inc bleeding time indicative of disorders; dec bleeding times is clinically insignificant

Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate (ESR)

Rate at which red blood cells fall out of well-mixed whole blood to bottom of test tube; alteration in blood proteins occurs during infla/necrotic processes, causing aggregation of RBC, making them heavier and causing them to fall in special vertical test tube; higher ESR is result of faster settling of cells; while not diagnostic of particular disease process, elevated ESR indicates disease; normal adult male 0-15 mm/hr, varies w/ age, gender, method; inc/dec ESRs indicative of disorder

Glucose Tolerance Test (GTT)

Eval patients who have symptoms of diabetes mellitus or other diabetes; measures blood glucose levels in intervals of fasting, 30 min, 1 hour, 2 hour, 3 hour after ingestion of dose of glucose, w/ urine samples also taken at these intervals; fasting 70-110 mg/dL e.g.; all urine samples should test negative for glucose; inc glucose values or dec glucose tolerance and vice versa indicative of disorders

Fasting Blood Glucose (FBS)

 Amount of glucose in blood after 8 hours fasting; normal adult has serum 70-110 mg/dL; inc/dec levels indicative of disorders

2-Hour Postprandial

Blood glucose levels 2 hours after ingestion of normal meal, often lunch; normal adult has 65-139 mg/dL; inc/dec postprandial blood glucose values indicative of disorders

Glycosylated Hemoglobin (HbA1C) / Glycohemoglobin (G-Hb)

Glycohemoglobin is measurement of blood glucose bound to hemoglobin giving overall view of past 120 days of glucose saturation; normal adult has 5.5-85%; inc/dec levels indicative of disorders

Digoxin

Cardiac glycoside used to treat CHF and arrhythmias; blood level studies prod info about therapeutic or toxic levels; normal therapeutic level 0.8-2.0 ng/mL; levels above 2 ng/mL indicates toxicity of drug, w/ med intervention req; levels below indicate digoxin req to achieve expected therapy

Digitoxin

Cardiac glycoside treating CHF, arrhythmias; normal therapeutic level 20-35 ng/mL; above upper limit indicates toxicity, req med intervention; below lower bound indicates more digitoxin req to achieve therapy

Theophylline

Bronchodilator treating asthma or obstructive respiratory disorders; normal therapeutic level 8-20 micrograms/mL; above req med intervention to lower; below indicates more is req for therapy

Lidocaine

Treats ventricular arrhythmias; normal therapeutic levels 1.5-6.0 micrograms/mL; levels above indicates toxicity, req med intervention to lower; levels below indicates more req for therapy

Lithium

Treats bipolar disorders; normal therapeutic levels 0.5-1.0 mEq/L in maintenance therapy, 1.0-1.5 mEq/L in initial treatment; levels above 1.2 mEq/L indicates toxicity, req med intervention to lower; levels below req more to get therapy

Alcohol Level

Normal 0%; states have established BAC that is considered legally safe

C-Reactive Protein

Tissues of body release this which can be detected, helping eval status of atheromatous plaques; elevation in this protein is marker of unstable atheromatous plaque; can indicate CAD; baseline studies recommended as reference for future measurement of arterial condition; normally non is present; elevation indicates disorder; often elevated in last half of pregnancy; infla in body’s tissue can be a source

Creatine Kinase (CK)

Enzyme found in certain tissues, elevated due to damage of cardiac/skeletal muscles; normal adult male has 35-232 U/L varies w/ gender and lab; in MI, rises in 2-6 hours, peaks 18-36 hours, returns to baseline 3-6 days after onset; inc levels contributes to diagnosis of MI

CK Isoenzymes

inc during MI and are more specific to MI diagnosis; normal values are MM CK3 (muscle) 90-100%, MB CK2 (heart) 0-4%, BB CK1 (brain) 0%; MB CK2 begins to rise 6-24 hours after MI, peaking after 24 hours, returning to normal within 72 hours

Lactate Dehydrogenase (LDH)

Enzyme in kidney, heart, skeletal muscle, brain, liver, lung tissue, released from cell; inc serum levels indicates cellular necrosis; normal values 150-450 units, varies w/ lab; levels of LDH begin to rise 12 hours postinsult, peaks after 24 hours, returns to normal after CK does

Lactate Dehydrogenase Isoenzymes

Found in body tissues, released when necrosis occurs; five different types, pointing to cardiac involvement and subsequent necrosis of myocardial tissue; normal values % of total LDH1 17-27%, LDH2 29-39%, LDH3 19-27%, LDH4 8-16%, LDH5 6-16%; LDH1/2 often inc w/ MI or necrosis, LDH1 peaks first, then 48 hours later ratio LDH1/2 reverses

Aspartate Aminotransferase (AST, SGOT)

measurement of enzyme found in heart, liver, muscle; normal adult has 15-37 micro/L; elevated/dec levels indicative of disorders

Alanine Aminotransferase (ALT, SGPT)

eval liver insult and measurement of enzyme product found in liver; in certain body fluids, and in liver, heart, kidneys, pancreas, musculoskeletal tissue; normal adult has 7-65 micro/L; elevated levels indicative of disorder; dec levels are never found

Urinalysis

Screening test w/ urine specimen giving picture of overall health/state of urinary tract; measurements in pH, specific gravity of urine, presence of ketones, protein, sugars, bilirubin, urobilinogen; color and odor noted, as is presence of abnor blood cells, casts, bacteria, other cells, crystals; a normal routine urinalysis has: pale to darkey yellow and clear color/clarity, aromatic odor, pH slightly acidic 5-8, specific gravity 1.003-1.030 reflects amount of waste minerals solids in urine; no/little protein, no glucose, no ketone bodies, no bile/bilirubin, no/small amount of hyaline casts, ammonia/creatinine/urea/uric acid, no crystals, no fat droplets in urine; any urine crystal is pathologic concern

Culture of Urine

Sample of urine specimen placed in/on culture medium to see whether microbial growth occurs; if growth, pathogenic microbe identified

Sensitivity of Urine

Portion of specimen placed on sensitivity disk impregnated w/ antibiotics to determine antibiotic resistance of pathogen in urine

Electrocardiogram (ECG) (12 Lead)

Recording of electrical activity of myocardium to diagnose ischemia, arrhythmias, conduction difficulties, activity of cardiac meds; normally: no arrhythmias, three limb leads (I/II/III), three augmented limb leads (AVR/AVL/AVF), six precordial chest leads (V1-6), conduction impulse traced by three specific areas of systolic/diastolic complex, P wave shows atrial depolarization, conduction of stimulus from SA node thru atrium to AV node, QRS complex shows ventricular depolarization (conduction of stimulus from upper portion of ventricle below AV node thru bundle of His, thru right/left bundle branches, thru Purkinje fibers, followed by relay thru ventricular myocardium), T wave shows repolarization of ventricular myocardium

Echocardiogram

Ultrasound acoustic imaging exam of cardiac structure to define size, shape, thickness, position, movements of cardiac structures (Valves, walls, chambers); normally no abnor shown; noninvasive, allows for diagnosis of various disorders

Holter Monitor

Miniature electrocardiograph recording electrical activity of heart for extended period (24-48 hours); patient records all activity during time period to allow examiner to find abnor; normally no dysrhythmias

Thallium Stress Test/Scan

Scan to indicate myocardial perfusion and location/extent of myocardial ischemia or infarction, predicts prognosis; normally, no evidence of ischemia/infarction, normal tissue absorbs isotope on injection

MUGA Scan

assesses function of left ventricle and identifies abnor of myocardial walls; normally 55-65% ejection fraction, symmetrical contraction of LV; radioactive isotope is injected into all four chambers and great vessels at the same time; a series of images taken during systole/diastole, either shown as movie or superimposed to relate ventricular function and allow ejection fraction to be calculated; done either under stress or no stress factor

Stress Testing

Assessment of cardiac function during moderate exercise on treadmill, stationary bike after 12-lead electrocardiogram; normally, negative result; stress test measures effects of exercise on myocardial output and O2 consumption by concurrent eval of monitored electrocardiogram and O2 consumption; test performed in safe env  to identify ind prone to myocardial ischemia during activity

Pulse Oximeter

Spectrophotometer provides noninvasive measurement of O2 saturation of arterial blood; normally, arterial blood oxygen 95%+ saturation

Cardiac Catheterization

Fluoroscopic visualization of R/L side of heart by passing catheter into R/L chambers and injecting dye; in angiograms, catheter passed into coronary vessels, dye is injected, fluoroscopic images recorded; normal varies w/ area assessed, indicating normal anatomy and physiology, normal chamber volumes/pressures, normal wall/valve motion, patent coronary arteries; normal value for cardiac output 5-8 L/min

Radiographs

visualization of int organs and structures by E&M radiation; radiographs of bone, abdomen, chest, paranasal sinuses, kidneys, ureters, bladder, mammograms w/o contrast medium; contrast medium distinguishes soft tissue and some organs (gallbladder, esophagus, stomach, S/L intestines); normal results vary w/ area, interpreted by radiologist, playing role in evals

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

Uses magnetic field to visualize int tissues; possible to view soft tissue and organs in 3D; helps determine blood flow, detecting tumors, differentiating healthy and diseased tissues, detect infection sites; helpful in diagnosing demyelinating disorders, eval flow of CSF; no radiation; patients w/ pacemakers, automatic defibrillators, metal implants, prosthetics, brain aneurysm clips, cochlear implants should not have MRI; painless, noninvasive unless contrast medium req; patient lies in tunnel-shaped canister; sedatives for claustrophobic helps; interpreted by radiologist given to physician for eval

Computerized Tomography (CT) Scans

uses scanner system providing images of int structure of tissue/organs both geographically and characteristically; shape, structure of organs visualized; IV contrast medium allows eval of vascular structures, masses, tumors; bony structures (sinuses) can be viewed; metal objects do not preclude this procedure; normal results vary w/ area, interpreted by radiologist given to physician for eval

Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Scans

Nuclear medicine diagnostic imaging technique prod 3D image/map of functional processes of body; uses detection of radiation from emission of positrons following admin of radioactive substance to ind; phys images obtained used in diagnosis/eval; helps detect conditions earlier than others; useful in detecting cancer and effects of cancer therapy; can reveal patterns of blood flow to heart showing CAD;  PET scans of heart can ascertain scarring from previous MI, dec function of myocardium; helps decide btwn angioplasty or coronary artery bypass surgery restored adequate blood flow to cardiac muscle; PET can help find brain tumors, vascular weakness/malformation, source of seizure causes; IV infusion of radioactive substance admin to patient, after short time, exam scanned and images recorded; used heavily in oncology, for diagnosis of brain diseases (dementias), map normal brain/heart function; used in preclinical studies in animals, esp valuable in cancer research; alternative methods include X-ray CT, MRI, fMRI, ultrasound, SPECT

PET

Imaging technique, noninvasive, imaging cellular functions of human body; one scan can exam entire body; gives complete picture, allowing diagnosis, extent of disease, treatment, tracking progress

PET/CT

Standard imaging tools that physicians use to pinpoint disease states in body; PET demonstrates biological function of body before anatomic changes, CT provides info about anatomy (size, shape, location); combo of both gives more accurate diagnosis useful for heart disease, cancer, brain disorder

Electron-Beam Computed Tomography (EBT/EBCT)

rapid noninvasive scan that constructs 3D image of beating heart; scan helps physician detect CAD early and calcified/hardened plaque in arteries; painless test can be done in <15 min and req no special prep

Fluoroscopy

Real-time imaging process providing continuous visualization of area; films made of process for more extensive exam; often studies functions of tissues/organs; normal results vary w/ area, interpreted by radiologist, dictating treatment

Sonograms / Echogram / Ultrasound

Imaging system projecting beam of sound waves into target tissue/organs receiving the waves as they bounce back; outline of structure prod and recorded on film for exam; tissues, organs, systems can be studied all over body; normal exams vary w/ area, interpreted by radiologist, given to physician for eval

Myelogram

Imaging exam of spinal cord or spinal nerve roots; contrast medium (dye) or air injected into subarachnoid space and recorded on radiographic film; fluoroscopy often combo; normal shows no lesions or abnor; used to diagnose a variety of spinal cord disorders

Guaiac Tests

For occult blood, a qualitative detection of RBC in stool; normally negative; presence of blood in stool indicative of disorder

Ova, Larva, Parasite Tests

Microscopic exam of stool to detect presence of parasites at various stages of development; normally nothing detected; positive exam indicates parasitic infection of GI tract

Endoscopy

Visual inspection of int organs/cavities of body w/ fiberoptic instrument w/ appropriate scope; pathology may be removed and insult to tissue can be repaired during procedure

Endoscopic Ultrasound (EUS)

combined endoscopy and ultrasound, using sound waves to create pictures of organs, lymph nodes, blood vessels; relatively noninvasive; often GI structures projected on monitor; can be used for biopsy, finding cancers of GI tract; safety and accuracy req high degree of technical skill and training

Gastroscopy

Visualization of stomach w/ gastroscope; normally, appearance of upper GI is within normal limits; hemorrhagic areas, erosion of vessel can be shown; abnor findings indicative of disorder

Colonoscopy

Visualization of Colon w/ colonoscope; normally, appearance of large intestinal mucosa normal; abnor findings can be observed

Sigmoidoscopy

Visualization of sigmoid portion of colon and rectum w/ sigmoidoscope; normally normal appearance of mucosa of sigmoid colon; disorders can be found

Proctoscopy

Visualization of rectum w/ proctoscope; normally normal look of rectal mucosa and to anal canal; disorders can be noted

Cystoscopy

Visualization of structures of urinary tract w/ cystoscope; normally, urethra, urethral orifices, urinary bladder interior, male prostatic urethra look normal; disorders can be noted 

Ureteroscopy

Visualization of ureters and pelvis of kidney; normally ureters and pelvis of kidneys and structures look normal; disorders can be noted

Bronchoscopy

Visualization of trachea and bronchi w/ bronchoscope; normally nasopharynx larynx, trachea, bronchi look normal; abnor may be noted

Arthroscopy

Visualization or inspection of inner aspect of joint w/ endoscope arthroscope; biopsy specimens can be obtained; normally joint looks normal; abnor can be noted

Arterial Blood Gas (ABG) Analysis

Measurement of dissolved O2 and CO2 in arterial blood, also measuring O2 saturation and blood pH of arterial blood; used to assess oxygenation and ventilation; prod info of effectiveness of therapy; normal adult values pH 7.35-7.45, PaCO2 35-46 mmHg, PaO2 75-100 mmHg, Abe -2-+2, HCO3 21-28 mEq/L, TCO2 22-29 mEq/L, O2 saturation 95-100%; inc pH, inc PaCO2, inc PaO2, Inc O2 saturation and vice versa indicative of disorder

Pulse Oximeter

Spectrophotometer prod noninvasive measurement of O2 saturation of arterial blood; normally 95%+

Peak Flow

Measurement of inspiratory effort; normally 300L/min based on age, gender, height

Spirometry

Measurement of lung capacity, volume, flow rates to eval asthma, bronchitis, COPD, emphysema

Methacholine Challenge

Measurement of lung volumes before/after inhalation of methacholine chloride for diagnosis of asthma; normally negative

Sputum Studies

Analysis of cultures of sputum, material expelled from respiratory tract, to detect pathogens; common studies on sputum include cytology testing, gram stain, culture and sensitivity; normally negative; positive results indicate infection

Pulmonary Function

Normal findings reported in percentage based on age, sex, weight, height; abnor results considered to be less than 80% of calculated volumes; Normal values include tidal volume 500 mL, expiratory reserve volume 1500 mL, residual volume 1500 mL, inspiratory reserve volume 2000 mL

C&S Studies

Specimens from various tissues of body are placed in medium to grow, studied for microbes present; specimens also placed on disk impregnated w/ various antibiotics to determine which antibiotics can destroy or curb their reproduction; normally no growth; growth of any microbes req identification, and antibiotic impregnated disk req inspection and identification of antibiotics that work

Bone Marrow Studies

Aspiration of bone marrow by needle from various places basis for eval of hematologic disorders and infectious diseases

Immune / Immunoglobulin Studies

Studies of (non)functioning of patient’s immune system; a normal adult has IgA 60-400 mg/dL, IgG 700-1500 mg/dL, IgM 60-300 mg/dL, IgD 0-8.0 mg/dL, IgE 3-42 IU/mL; inc/dec levels indicate disorders

Biopsies

Excision of tissues from living body followed by microscopic exam for purpose of exact diagnosis; normally no abnor cells seen; abnor findings based on cell structure discovered

Lumbar Puncture

Surgical procedure to withdraw spinal fluid for analysis; normally clear colorless appearance, 1.006-1.008 specific gravity, 90-150 mm H2O pressure, 0-19 U AST, Bicarbonate 22.9 mEq/L, WBC 5 cells, glucose 40-70 mg/dL, total protein 15-60 mg/dL, lactic acid 10-24 mg/dL, VDRL negative, no bacteria/viruses present; pressure depends on patient’s position and height; abnor findings indicative of disorders

Electroencephalogram

Recording of electrical activity of cerebral cortex identifying location of insult to cerebral tissue; normally shows symmetric patterns of electrical brain activity; abnor findings indicative of disorders

Electromyelogram

Electrodiagnosis assessment and recording of activity of skeletal muscles; nerve conduction study assessing state of muscles at rest and during contraction shows average picture of local electrical activity of muscle; normally nerve conduction normal and muscle action potential normal; abnor findings indicative of disorder

Gastric Analysis

Used in diagnosis of pernicious anemia and peptic ulcers, where contents of stomach exam for acidity, appearance, volume; a normal adult has bile 0/minimal, mucus evenly mixed, blood 0/scant, fasting acidity 2.5 mEq/L, quantity 62 mL/hr, pH 1-2.5; inc/dec gastric acid levels indicative of disorders