poli 20 final

Coordination Problems

Occur when people or groups with different interests must work together to achieve a common goal.

Prisoner’s Dilemma

A situation where individuals, acting in their self-interest, undermine the collective good because they assume others will do the same.

Free-Riding

When individuals benefit from a collective good without contributing to it.

Tragedy of the Commons

When a shared public resource is overused due to a lack of regulation, leading to depletion.

Transaction Costs

The costs (time, effort, money) associated with making economic or political exchanges.

Conformity Costs

The costs individuals bear when policies deviate from their personal preferences.

Articles of Confederation

The first U.S. Constitution, which created a weak national government.

Madison’s “Extended Republic” (Federalist No. 10)

Madison’s argument that a large, diverse republic is the best way to prevent factions from gaining too much power and leading to tyranny.

Separation of Powers

Division of government into executive, legislative, and judicial branches, each with distinct powers.

Bicameralism

A legislative system with two chambers (e.g., U.S. Congress: House of Representatives & Senate).

Civil Rights

Legal protections ensuring individuals are treated equally under the law.

Civil Liberties

Protections from government overreach, ensuring individual freedoms.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

Outlawed segregation and discrimination based on race, sex, religion, or national origin.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

Eliminated literacy tests, poll taxes, and other barriers that prevented Black Americans from voting.

Brandenburg v. Ohio (1969)

A Supreme Court case ruling that speech can only be restricted if it incites imminent lawless action.

Random Sample

A survey method where every member of a population has an equal chance of being chosen.

Political Socialization

The process through which individuals develop political beliefs.

Party ID: Rational Choice Model

People vote based on self-interest, choosing policies that benefit them.

Party ID: Psychological Attachment Model

Emotional loyalty to a political party, often formed in childhood.

Party ID: “Running Tally” Model

People track a party’s past performance and adjust their support accordingly.

Rational Ignorance

When people choose not to educate themselves on politics because the cost of learning outweighs the benefit.

Framing

How an issue is presented to influence public perception.

Cognitive Shortcuts

Mental shortcuts that help voters make quick decisions.

Opinion Leaders

Influential figures who shape public opinion.

Issue Publics

Groups of people who care deeply about a single political issue.

Principal-Agent Relationship

When a principal delegates authority to an agent, but the agent may not always act in the principal’s best interest.

Agency Loss

The gap between what the principal wants and what the agent does.

Incumbency Advantage

The tendency for current officeholders to have a higher chance of re-election.

Rational Calculus of Voting

A formula explaining why people vote despite low individual impact.

Retrospective Voting

Voters judge candidates based on past performance rather than future promises.

Casework

When legislators help constituents with government-related issues.

Earmarks (or Pork Barrel Spending)

Government funds directed to specific projects in a legislator’s district.

Particularized Benefits

Government benefits or funding directed to a specific group.

Gerrymandering

The manipulation of electoral district boundaries to benefit a political party or group.

Party-Centered Elections

Elections where political parties play the dominant role in mobilizing voters and setting the policy agenda.

Candidate-Centered Elections

Elections where individual candidates, rather than parties, are the main focus.

Rules Committee

A House committee that determines the rules for debate and amendment of bills.

Filibuster

A tactic used in the U.S. Senate to delay or block a vote.

Cloture Vote

A Senate vote to end a filibuster, requiring 60 votes.

Conditional Party Government

A theory that party leadership has more power when party members are ideologically unified.

Nationalization

The process where political issues and elections become increasingly focused on national rather than local issues.

King Caucus

A system where congressional party members selected presidential nominees before national conventions.

National Nominating Conventions

Large gatherings where political parties formally nominate their presidential candidate.

Presidential Primary Elections

Elections where voters choose delegates who support a particular candidate.

Invisible Primary

The period before official primaries when candidates compete for endorsements, media attention, and fundraising.

Unitary Executive Theory

The belief that the president has broad, unchecked power over the executive branch.

War Powers Act

A law requiring the president to notify Congress within 48 hours of deploying troops.

Executive Agreements

International agreements made by the president without Senate approval.

Impoundment

When a president refuses to spend funds allocated by Congress.

Signing Statements

Written comments by the president when signing a bill.

Office of Management and Budget (OMB)

The executive agency that prepares the federal budget and oversees government spending.

Presidential Veto

The president’s power to reject legislation passed by Congress.

Executive Order

A directive issued by the president that has the force of law without congressional approval.

Going Public

When the president appeals directly to the public to pressure Congress.

Judicial Review

The Supreme Court’s power to declare laws unconstitutional.