poli 20 final
Coordination Problems
Definition: Occur when people or groups with different interests must work together to achieve a common goal.
Why it matters: Coordination problems are widespread and can lead to political gridlock.
Example: The House of Representatives frequently experiences coordination issues, making it difficult to pass legislation.
Key Insight: The larger the group, the harder it is to compromise.
Prisoner’s Dilemma
Definition: A situation where individuals, acting in their self-interest, undermine the collective good because they assume others will do the same.
Why it matters: Common in politics, especially between Democrats and Republicans.
Example:
U.S. Debt Deadlock: Both parties benefit if they cooperate to maintain economic stability, but if one defects while the other cooperates, the defecting party gains an electoral advantage. If both defect, economic turmoil ensues (e.g., market crashes, government shutdowns).
Free-Riding
Definition: When individuals benefit from a collective good without contributing to it.
Why it matters: Can lead to government programs (e.g., welfare, public services) being taken advantage of.
Examples:
Tax Avoidance: People not paying taxes while still benefiting from government services.
NATO Defense Spending: The U.S. spends significantly more on military defense than its allies, allowing other countries to "free-ride" on U.S. protection.
Tragedy of the Commons
Definition: When a shared public resource is overused due to a lack of regulation, leading to depletion.
Why it matters: Explains why strong institutions, incentives, or regulations are necessary to prevent resource exhaustion.
Example:
Colorado River Crisis: Overuse by multiple states has led to water shortages, and without regulation, millions could lose access to water.
Transaction Costs
Definition: The costs (time, effort, money) associated with making economic or political exchanges.
Examples:
Passing Laws in Congress: Drafting, debating, and negotiating legislation.
Presidential Elections: Campaigning and fundraising.
International Agreements: Treaties require extensive negotiations and enforcement.
Conformity Costs
Definition: The costs individuals bear when policies deviate from their personal preferences.
Why it matters: Democratic systems try to balance conformity and transaction costs.
Examples:
Taxation: Citizens must pay taxes even if they oppose certain government programs.
Mask Mandates: Required compliance even if individuals disagreed.
Affordable Care Act: Forced individuals to buy health insurance or pay a penalty.
Key Relationship: Conformity costs and transaction costs are inversely related:
Higher conformity costs → Lower transaction costs
Higher transaction costs → Lower conformity costs
Articles of Confederation
Definition: The first U.S. Constitution, which created a weak national government.
Why it failed:
Congress lacked power to tax → National debt.
No national military → Weak defense.
Unanimous state approval required for amendments → Gridlock.
Example: Shays’ Rebellion exposed the government’s inability to maintain order.
Madison’s “Extended Republic” (Federalist No. 10)
Definition: Madison’s argument that a large, diverse republic is the best way to prevent factions from gaining too much power and leading to tyranny.
Madison’s Definition of Faction
Definition: Any group (majority or minority) motivated by passion or self-interest that may harm the rights of others or the public good.
Key Insight: Factions are inevitable, but a large republic dilutes their power.
Separation of Powers
Definition: Division of government into executive, legislative, and judicial branches, each with distinct powers.
Why it matters: Prevents tyranny through checks and balances.
Bicameralism
Definition: A legislative system with two chambers (e.g., U.S. Congress: House of Representatives & Senate).
Why it matters:
Prevents rash decisions by requiring both chambers to agree.
Balances power between large and small states.
Civil Rights
Definition: Legal protections ensuring individuals are treated equally under the law, requiring government action to enforce them.
Examples:
Voting rights, anti-discrimination laws, equal access to public spaces.
Civil Liberties
Definition: Protections from government overreach, ensuring individual freedoms.
Examples:
Bill of Rights: Freedom of speech, religion, due process, etc.
Civil Rights Act of 1964
Definition: Outlawed segregation and discrimination based on race, sex, religion, or national origin.
Voting Rights Act of 1965
Definition: Eliminated literacy tests, poll taxes, and other barriers that prevented Black Americans from voting.
Impact: Led to a massive increase in Black voter registration.
Brandenburg v. Ohio (1969)
Definition: A Supreme Court case ruling that speech can only be restricted if it incites imminent lawless action.
Example: Debated in cases like Trump’s January 6th speech.
Random Sample
Definition: A survey method where every member of a population has an equal chance of being chosen.
Why it matters:
Reduces bias.
Increases accuracy.
Common in political polling.
Political Socialization
Definition: The process through which individuals develop political beliefs.
Key Influences:
Family
Education
Religion
Community
Party ID: Rational Choice Model
Definition: People vote based on self-interest, choosing policies that benefit them.
Example: A voter supporting tax cuts because they believe it will improve their financial situation.
Party ID: Psychological Attachment Model
Definition: Emotional loyalty to a political party, often formed in childhood.
Party ID: “Running Tally” Model
Definition: People track a party’s past performance and adjust their support accordingly.
Example: If a party enacts policies a voter dislikes, they may switch allegiance.
Rational Ignorance
Definition: When people choose not to educate themselves on politics because the cost of learning outweighs the benefit.
Why it matters:
Politicians exploit public ignorance.
Lobbyists and elites gain more influence.
Framing
Definition: How an issue is presented to influence public perception.
Example: Media framing of political events shapes public opinion.
Cognitive Shortcuts
Definition: Mental shortcuts that help voters make quick decisions (e.g., voter guides, endorsements).
Opinion Leaders
Definition: Influential figures who shape public opinion (e.g., politicians, activists, media personalities).
Issue Publics
Definition: Groups of people who care deeply about a single political issue (e.g., gun control activists, climate change advocates).
Principal-Agent Relationship
Definition: When a principal delegates authority to an agent, but the agent may not always act in the principal’s best interest.
Example: Voters (principals) elect politicians (agents), who may act differently once in office.
Agency Loss
Definition: The gap between what the principal wants and what the agent does.
Example: Politicians breaking campaign promises.
Incumbency Advantage
Definition: The tendency for current officeholders to have a higher chance of re-election.
Rational Calculus of Voting
Formula:
R = (B × P) - C + D
Why it matters: Explains why people vote despite low individual impact.
Retrospective Voting
Definition: Voters judge candidates based on past performance rather than future promises.
Casework
Definition: When legislators help constituents with government-related issues, such as navigating bureaucracy.
Example: A senator’s office assisting a veteran in receiving their delayed benefits.
Earmarks (or Pork Barrel Spending)
Definition: Government funds directed to specific projects in a legislator’s district, often to secure votes or political support.
Example: A congressperson securing federal funding for a bridge in their district to please local voters.
Particularized Benefits
Definition: Government benefits or funding directed to a specific group, rather than the general public.
Example: A tax break for a single industry, such as subsidies for farmers in Iowa.
Gerrymandering
Definition: The manipulation of electoral district boundaries to benefit a political party or group.
Example: In North Carolina, districts were redrawn to concentrate Democratic voters into a few districts, making others safely Republican.
Party-Centered Elections
Definition: Elections where political parties play the dominant role in mobilizing voters and setting the policy agenda.
Example: In the mid-20th century, party loyalty was stronger, and voters primarily chose candidates based on party affiliation rather than individual characteristics.
Candidate-Centered Elections
Definition: Elections where individual candidates, rather than parties, are the main focus.
Example: The 2016 presidential election was highly candidate-centered, with Trump and Clinton's personal attributes shaping voter decisions more than party platforms.
Rules Committee
Definition: A House committee that determines the rules for debate and amendment of bills before they go to the floor.
Example: The committee can set a “closed rule” to prevent amendments, limiting opposition to a bill.
Filibuster
Definition: A tactic used in the U.S. Senate where a senator speaks for an extended period to delay or block a vote.
Example: In 2013, Senator Ted Cruz spoke for over 21 hours against the Affordable Care Act.
Cloture Vote
Definition: A Senate vote to end a filibuster, requiring 60 votes.
Example: In 2021, Senate Democrats attempted to pass voting rights legislation but failed to secure the 60 votes needed for cloture.
Conditional Party Government
Definition: A theory that party leadership has more power when party members are ideologically unified.
Example: In 2010, Republican House leadership had strong control over policy direction due to the Tea Party movement’s ideological cohesion.
Nationalization
Definition: The process where political issues and elections become increasingly focused on national rather than local issues.
Example: Congressional elections are now more influenced by national party politics than by local issues.
King Caucus
Definition: A system where congressional party members selected presidential nominees before national conventions.
Example: Before 1832, Democratic-Republican congressional members decided their party’s presidential nominee.
National Nominating Conventions
Definition: Large gatherings where political parties formally nominate their presidential candidate.
Example: The Democratic National Convention in 2020 officially nominated Joe Biden.
Presidential Primary Elections
Definition: Elections where voters choose delegates who support a particular candidate for their party’s presidential nomination.
Example: The Iowa caucuses and New Hampshire primary are early contests that shape the presidential race.
Invisible Primary
Definition: The period before official primaries when candidates compete for endorsements, media attention, and fundraising.
Example: In 2019, Democratic candidates like Pete Buttigieg raised funds and sought endorsements before primary voting began.
Unitary Executive Theory
Definition: The belief that the president has broad, unchecked power over the executive branch.
Example: The Bush administration used this theory to justify expanded presidential authority in national security.
War Powers Act
Definition: A law requiring the president to notify Congress within 48 hours of deploying troops and withdraw them within 60 days unless Congress authorizes military action.
Example: Presidents have often bypassed the Act, such as Obama’s intervention in Libya without congressional approval.
Executive Agreements
Definition: International agreements made by the president without Senate approval.
Example: The Iran nuclear deal was an executive agreement, not a formal treaty.
Impoundment
Definition: When a president refuses to spend funds allocated by Congress.
Example: Nixon attempted to withhold funds from programs he opposed, leading Congress to pass the Budget Control Act of 1974.
Signing Statements
Definition: Written comments by the president when signing a bill, sometimes indicating how they interpret the law.
Example: George W. Bush issued signing statements to challenge provisions of anti-torture legislation.
Office of Management and Budget (OMB)
Definition: The executive agency that prepares the federal budget and oversees government spending.
Example: The OMB helps craft the president’s annual budget proposal to Congress.
Presidential Veto
Definition: The president’s power to reject legislation passed by Congress.
Example: Obama vetoed the Keystone XL Pipeline bill in 2015.
Executive Order
Definition: A directive issued by the president that has the force of law without congressional approval.
Example: Biden issued an executive order in 2021 to rejoin the Paris Climate Agreement.
Going Public
Definition: When the president appeals directly to the public to pressure Congress.
Example: Reagan used television addresses to gain public support for his tax cuts.
Judicial Review
Definition: The Supreme Court’s power to declare laws unconstitutional.
Example: In Marbury v. Madison (1803), the Court established judicial review by striking down part of the Judiciary Act of 1789.