Honors Biology Final Freshman

Photosynthesis

Conversion of light energy from the sun into chemical energy.

Chlorophyll

Green pigment in plants that absorbs light energy used to carry out photosynthesis

thlyakoid

Where light dependent reaction (first step )

-small disk struture

Stroma

fluid portion of the chloroplast; outside of the thylakoids

Grana

stacks of thylakoids

light-dependent reactions

reactions of photosynthesis that use energy from light to produce ATP and NADPH

Light-independent reactions

use energy from the light dependent reactions to make sugars

Photosystems

proteins in the thylakoid membrane organize chlorophyll and other pigments into clusters

Electron Transport Chain (ETC)

group of proteins between PSII and PSI that pass energized electrons and use the energy released by the electrons to move hydrogen ions against their concentration gradient into the thylakoid lumen

ATP synthase

Large protein that uses energy from H+ ions to bind ADP and a phosphate group together to produce ATP

Calvin Cycle

reactions of photosynthesis in which energy from ATP and NADPH is used to build high-energy compounds such as sugars

Reactants of Light Dependent reaction

H2O, ADP+P, NADP+, sunlight

Products of Light Dependent Reaction

ATP (from ADP)

NADPH (from NADP+)

6O2

Reactants of Light independent

ATP, NADPH, CO2

products of light independent reaction

glucose, ADP, NADP+

What is the main function of the ETC

Includes a collection of membrane embedded proteins and organic molecules that transfer electrons and create an electrochemical gradient that produces ATP

What is the main function for the light dependent reaction?

To create ATP to use during the Calvin cycle

How does NADP+ become NADPH?

when it accepts a pair of high energy electrons

What is the thylakoid Membrane?

internal membrane arranged in flattened sacs

What structure releases O2 gas?

Stomata

How is CO2 received into a photosynthetic plant?

Stomata

How does water enter the photosynthesis reaction?

Through the roots

Why are plants green?

Chlorophyll reflects green light

What light does chlorophyll absorb?

red and blue

Where does the light dependent reaction take place?

Thylakoid membrane

What is the formula for Photosynthesis

6CO2 + 6H2O ------> C6H12O6 + 6O2

What is the formula for cellular respiration?

C6H12O6 + 6O2 --> 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP

What happens to the sugars that are made during photosynthesis?

Used for food source

How does light intensity affect plant growth/oxygen production?

It can speed up the process the closer and brighter, or lower it, the farther and dimmer

What happens during the G1 phase of the cell cycle?

- The cell carries out normal functions

- The cell increases in size and organelles

What happens during the Synthesis Phase?

- The cell makes a copy of it's nuclear DNA

What happens during the Gap 2 phase of the cycle

Cells continue to carry out normal functions and additional growth occurs

- Delay G2 occurs if damaged needs to be repaired

- Programmed Death if damage is irreversible

What is Mitosis?

the division of the cell nucleus and it's contents

What is prophase?

Chromosomes condense and the miotic spindle begins to form

What is Metaphase?

Chromosomes are aligned at the metaphase plate

What is Anaphase?

sister chromatids are pulled apart

What is telophase?

Chromosomes arrive at opposite ends, decondense and are surrounded by new nuclear envelope.

What is cytokinesis?

division of the cytoplasm

What is Meiosis?

a form of nuclear division that divides a diploid cell into 4 haploid cells

Chromosomes?

supper coils that are coiled around support proteins. Coils of DNA

What is a histone?

Support protein that DNA can wrap around

Chromatin?

supercoils of DNA that are stacked on top of each other

Chromatid

one of two identical "sister" parts of a duplicated chromosome

Centromere

Area where the chromatids of a chromosome are attached

Telomere

DNA at the tips of chromosomes

Would DNA be found in a chromatid or sister chromatid during the following cycles?

G1 phase

S phase

G2 phase

Prophase

Metaphase

Anaphase

Telophase

Cytokinesis

G1 phase: Chromatid

S phase: Sister

G2 phase: Sister

Prophase: Sister

Metaphase: Sister

Anaphase: Sister

Telophase: Chromatid

Cytokinesis: Chromatid

What kind of cells are used in Mitosis?

Somatic cells, that make up most of your body's tissues and organs

What kind of cells are used in Meisos?

Germ Cells: cells in your reproductive organs, the ovaries or the testes, that develop into gametes.

What cells are produced after Mitosis?

Diploid cell has two copies of each chromosome, one copy for each parent represented as 2n

What cells are produced after meiosis?

Haploid cells: has only one copy of each chromosome. represented as 1n

How many times does cytokinesis occur during Mitosis?

1

How many times does cytokinesis occur during Meiosis?

2

Are daughter cells in Mitosis identical or different?

Identical

Are daughter cells in Meiosis identical or different?

different

When does Mitosis take place?

through out an organisms life

Where does meiosis take place?

takes place only at certain times

Does Mitosis take sexual reproduction of cells?

False: it is asexual reproduction

Does Meiosis take sexual reproduction?

Yes, it is the fusion of two gametes

What are external factors in regulation of the cell cycle?

Chemical and physical signals that come from outside the cell including messages from nearby cells and from distant parts of the organisms body

- Physical signals from cell to cell contact

- Chemical signals released telling other cells to grow

- Growth Factors: broad group of proteins that stimulate cell division

What are internal factors in the regulation of the cell cycle?

They come from inside the cell and can be triggered by external factors.

What is the function of kinases in the cell cycle?

Kinases are enzymes that transfer a phosphate group from one molecule to a specific target molecule.

What are cyclins?

Cyclins are a group of proteins that are rapidly synthesized and degraded during the cell cycle.

What is Apoptosis?

programmed cell death

What is cancer?

class of disease characterized by uncontrolled cell division

Allele

gene variations that arise by mutation and exist at the same relative locations on homologous chromosomes

Genotype

genetic makeup of an organism

Phenotype

the set of observable characteristics of an individual resulting from the interaction of its genotype with the environment.

Homozygous

An organism that has two identical alleles for a trait

Heterozygous

An organism that has two different alleles for a trait

Dominant

trait which confers the same physical appearance whether an individual has two copies of the trait or one copy of the dominant trait and one copy of the recessive trait

Recessive

trait that appears "latent" or non-expressed when the individual also carries a dominant trait for that same characteristic; when present as two identical copies, the recessive trait is expressed

homologous chromosomes

Pairs of mutant chromosomes - one inherited from each parent found in diploid cells

autosomal chromosomes

22 chromosome pairs that control traits NOT related to gender--same in females and males.

Sex Chromososmes

specialized pair of chromosomes that determine biological sex

crossing over

How Chromosomes pair up during prophase of meiosis, ensuring exchange of DNA

Genetic Variation

The variety of different types of genes in a species or population.

How are the possibilities of certain genes being expressed figured out?

Punet Squares

What is Mendel's Law of Segregation?

Organisms inherit 2 copies of each gene one from each parent organisms donate the 1 copy of each gene to each gamete

What are monohybrid crosses?

crosses that examine the inheritance of only one specific trait

What are dihybrid crosses?

crosses that examine the inheritance of two different traits

What is the Law of independent assortment?

Allele pairs separate independently of each other during gamete formation or meiosis

- different traits appear to be inherited separately

What is probability?

likelihood that a particular event will occur

What is the formula for Probability?

number of times an event is expected to happen/ number of times an event could happen

What is incomplete dominance?

when one allele is not completely dominant over the other

- a heterozygous phenotype results from two homozygous phenotypes

What is codominance?

both alleles contribute to the phenotype

What are multiple Alleles?

three or more forms of a gene that code for a single trait

What are Polygenic traits?

When multiple genes contribute to the over all phenotype observed

What is epistasis?

unrelated gene modifies the expression of another gene

- Albinism

What are sex linked genes?

Genes that are located on the sex chromosomes and are inherited with them

What are karyotypes?

a picture of the chromosomes in a cell

Describe the experiments and the findings of Griffith.

Experimented with Rats by injecting them with Bacteria that identified a transforming factor

Describe the experiments and the findings of Avery.

Presented that DNA must be the transforming principle for genetic material, not protein

Describe the experiments and the findings of Hershey and Chase.

- Proved that DNA, not protein is genetic material

- Demonstrated DNA of a virus enters bacterial cell when infecting it

Describe the experiments and the findings of Chargaff.

- found that there were the same 4 bases of DNA

- Analyzed the different DNA of organisms

- proportions differ from one organism to another

Describe the experiments and the findings of Watson and Crick.

Discovered DNA double helix

What does a DNA nucleotide consist of?

Pentose sugar, Phosphate group, Nitrogenous base

What is the shape of DNA?

double helix

What DNA bases pair together?

Adenine, Thymine, Apples Grow on Trees

Cytosine, Guanine, Cars go in Garages

What are DNA bases held together by?

hydrogen bonds

What is a purine?

Two ring Structure