unit 2 AP psych NECESSARY

Stimulation

Detecting a stimulus.

Perception

Interpreting sensory input into meaningful experiences.

Top‑down processing

Using prior knowledge to interpret information.

Bottom‑up processing

Interpreting unfamiliar stimuli using raw sensory data.

Schemas

Long‑term mental templates built from experience.

Perceptual set

Short‑term expectations that influence interpretation.

Figure-ground

Separating objects from background.

Closure

Filling in missing information.

Similarity

Grouping similar items.

Proximity

Grouping items close together.

Continuation

Perceiving smooth, continuous patterns.

Symmetry

Symmetrical objects perceived as one unit.

Anomaly

Noticing the item that doesn't fit.

Binocular cues

Require both eyes.

Monocular cues

Require one eye.

Relative size

Smaller = farther.

Interposition

Blocking object = closer.

Relative height

Higher in field = farther.

Texture gradient

Blurry = farther.

Linear perspective

Parallel lines converge with distance.

Motion parallax

Closer objects move faster.

Cocktail party effect

Focusing on one voice while noticing important background info.

Inattentional blindness

Missing something because attention is elsewhere.

Change blindness

Failing to notice environmental changes.

Stroboscopic motion

Rapid images create motion illusion.

Induced movement

Stationary object appears to move.

Autokinetic effect

Light in darkness appears to move.

Prototype

Best example of a category.

Concepts

Mental categories.

Assimilation

Fitting new info into existing schema.

Accommodation

Changing schema to fit new info.

Executive functions

Planning, focusing, problem‑solving.

Algorithms

Step‑by‑step guaranteed method.

Heuristics

Quick mental shortcuts.

Representative heuristic

Judging based on similarity to a prototype.

Availability heuristic

Judging based on how easily examples come to mind.

Mental set

Using old solutions even when ineffective.

Functional fixedness

Seeing objects only in their usual use.

Priming

Earlier exposure influences later response.

Repetition priming

Repeated exposure improves recognition.

Semantic priming

Related words activate each other.

Framing

Wording affects decisions.

Gambler's fallacy

Believing past events change future odds.

Sunk‑cost fallacy

Continuing because you already invested.

Divergent thinking

Many possible solutions.

Convergent thinking

One best solution.

Memory

Storing and retrieving information over time.

Explicit (declarative)

Conscious recall.

Episodic

Personal experiences.

Semantic

Facts and knowledge.

Implicit

Unconscious memory (cerebellum, basal ganglia).

Procedural

Skills and routines.

Prospective memory

Remembering future tasks.

Long‑term potentiation

Repeated firing strengthens neural pathways.

Visuospatial sketchpad

Visual info.

Phonological loop

Sound info.

Phonological store

Inner ear.

Articulatory rehearsal

Inner voice.

Central executive

Attention controller.

Sensory → Short‑term → Long‑term

Multistore Model.

Iconic memory

Visual, 1-4 sec.

Echoic memory

Auditory, 1-4 sec.

Automatic processing

No effort.

Effortful processing

Conscious encoding.

Maintenance rehearsal

Repeating info.

Elaborative rehearsal

Connecting to meaning.

Structural

Appearance.

Phonemic

Sound.

Visual encoding

Appearance.

Acoustic encoding

Sound.

Tactile encoding

Touch.

Method of loci

Placing info in imagined locations.

Chunking

Grouping info.

Distributed practice

Spaced studying.

Spacing effect

Spacing improves memory.

Testing effect

Retrieval strengthens memory.

Serial position effect

Primacy + recency.

Short‑term memory

15-30 seconds.

Long‑term memory

Stored indefinitely.

Memory consolidation

STM → LTM.

Autobiographical memory

Detailed personal memories.

Anterograde amnesia

Can't form new memories.

Retrograde amnesia

Can't recall old memories.

Source amnesia

Remember info, not origin.

Infantile amnesia

No early childhood memories.

Recall

Retrieving without cues.

Recognition

Identifying with cues.

Mood‑congruent memory

Recall matches mood.

Context‑dependent memory

Recall improves in same environment.

State‑dependent memory

Recall improves in same physical/mental state.

Metacognition

Thinking about your thinking.

Encoding failure

Info never stored.

Tip‑of‑the‑tongue

Retrieval failure.

Proactive interference

Old blocks new.

Retroactive interference

New blocks old.

Repression (Freud)

Pushing anxiety‑provoking memories out of awareness.

Forgetting curve

Rapid forgetting, then levels off.

Misinformation effect

Post‑event info distorts memory.

Constructive memory

Memories are rebuilt and altered.

Intelligence

Ability to learn and apply knowledge.