AP Psychology: TERMS for Chapter 14, Social Psychology Exam

social psychology

the scientific study of how we think and how we interact with one another in various scenarios

attribution theory

the explanation of one's behavior as stemming from their stable, fundamental traits or the situation at hand

fundamental attribution error

the tendency to overestimate the influence of personality and subsequent underestimation of the external situation when considering one's behavior

attitudes

feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose our reactions to objects, people, and events

central route to persuasion

occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts

peripheral route to persuasion

occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker's attractiveness

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request

self-serving bias

the tendency to interpret events in a way that assigns credit for success to internal factors and assigns blame for wrongdoings on external factors, a form of deception designed to maintain high self-esteem

false consensus effect

the tendency to assume that one's own opinions, beliefs, attributes, or behaviors are more popular than they actually are; attributed to a desire to view one's thoughts and actions as appropriate, normal, and correct

cognitive dissonance theory

we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when two of our thoughts or our thoughts and behaviors are inconsistent

confirmation bias

the tendency to gather evidence that confirms preexisting expectations, typically by emphasizing supporting evidence while dismissing contradictory evidence

halo effect

a rating bias in which a general evaluation of a person, usually positive, in one area influences judgments of that person in other areas; works like an encompassing 'halo' across ALL aspects of a person

elaboration likelihood model

theory identifying two ways to persuade: a central route and a peripheral route

norms

understood rules for accepted and expected behavior

conformity

adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard because of real or imagined pressure to fit in

obedience

behavior in compliance with a direct command, often issued by a person in a position of authority

normative social influence

influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval

informational social influence

influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality

social facilitation

the presence of others amplifying our most likely response

social loafing

the reduction of individual effort that occurs when people work in groups compared to working alone

social inhibition

the restraint placed on an individual's expression of his or her feelings, attitudes, motives, and more by the belief that others could disapprove of this behavior

diffusion of responsibility

the diminished sense of responsibility often experienced by individuals in a group and social collectives

deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

group polarization

the tendency for group members discussing an issue with like-minded people to hold more extreme versions of their beliefs on the issue following the discussion

groupthink

a strong concurrence-seeking tendency that interferes with effective group decision-making

culture

the distinctive customs, values, beliefs, knowledge, art, and language of a society or community; the characteristic attitudes and behaviors of a particular societal group

prejudice

an unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members; generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action.

stereotype

generalized beliefs about a group of people

discrimination

acting in negative and unjustifiable ways towards members of a group

ingroup

"us" - people with whom one shares a common identity

outgroup

"them" - those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup

outgroup homogeneity effect

the tendency to view outgroup members as less varied than ingroup members

ingroup bias

the tendency to favor one's own group

scapegoat theory

the theory that intergroup conflict is caused by prejudice; negative emotions exacerbate prejudice

just-world hypothesis

the tendency for people to believe that the world is just, or fair, and people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get

other-race effect

the tendency to recall faces of one's own race more accurately than faces of other races

aggression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone, when done out of hostility

frustration-aggression principle

the principle that frustration- the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal- creates anger, which can generate aggression

social scripts

culturally modeled guides for how to act in various situations

mere exposure effect

the finding that individuals show an increased preference for a stimulus as a consequence of repeated exposure to a stimulus

equity theory

people compare their output-to-input ratio to those of others engaged in similar situations

altruism

an apparently unselfish behavior that provides benefits to others at some cost to the individual

*bystander effect

a phenomenon in which people fail to offer necessary help in emergencies as the number of other people present increases

reciprocity norms

the social standard that people who help others will receive equivalent benefits in return, a common expectation in many interpersonal encounters and relationships

social exchange theory

the idea that social relationships are an exchange in which a participant tries to maximize benefits and minimize costs within the limits of what is considered fair and just

social traps

situations in which a group intentionally works towards short-term, personal gains with long-term, widespread consequences

prisoner's dilemma

the situation where one must choose between a decision that is beneficial to themselves but harmful to others, or an act that is significantly less beneficial but harmful to no one

social-responsibility norm

the socially determined standard that one should assist those in need when possible

conflict resolution

the reduction of discourse and friction between individuals or groups, usually through the use of active strategies like conciliation, negotiation, and bargaining

mirror-image perceptions

reciprocal views of each other often held by parties in conflict; for example, each may view itself as moral and peace-loving and the other as evil and aggressive

self-fulfilling prophecy

an expectation that helps to bring about its own fulfillment simply from the anticipation

superordinate goals

goals that can only be attained if the members of two or more groups work together by pooling their skills, efforts, and resources

GRIT

an approach to intergroup conflict resolution that encourages the parties to communicate cooperative intentions, engage in behavior that are consistent with these intentions, and initiate cooperative responses even in the face of competition.

Leon Festinger

proposed the cognitive dissonance theory

Solomon Asch

conducted the line test to research the phenomenon of conformity

Philip Zombardo

organized the Stanford Prison Experiment, researching social norms and obedience --\> the experiment was ended early because of the mental distress the subjects were put under

Stanley Milgram

researched obedience to authority through the electric shock test --\> controversial because the subjects believed they were shocking someone when they were in fact not