Unit 0: Science Practices for AP Psychology Review

A set of 100 flashcards covering terminology, perspectives, research designs, ethics, and statistics from the AP Psychology Unit 0 lecture.

Biological Perspective

Focuses on how the body's physical structures, neurotransmitters, hormones, and genetics influence behavior and mental processes.

Behavioral Perspective

focuses on how observable behaviors are learned and influenced by the environment, rather than internal mental processes.

Cognitive Perspective

Focuses on how people think, process information, solve problems, and how mental processes like memory influence behavior.

Evolutionary Perspective

Focuses on how natural selection has shaped behaviors and mental processes to increase survival and reproduction.

Humanistic Perspective

Focuses on personal growth, free will, and the desire to reach full potential through self-actualization.

Psychodynamic Perspective

Focuses on how unconscious thoughts, feelings, and early childhood experiences influence behavior

Sociocultural Perspective

Focuses on how social interactions, culture, and environmental norms shape behavior and mental processes.

Self-actualization

A key concept in the humanistic perspective referring to the inherent drive for people to reach their full potential.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to seek out information that aligns with one's point of view while dismissing information that challenges beliefs.

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe one could have anticipated the outcome of an event after it has already occurred.

Overconfidence

The tendency to overestimate one's knowledge, abilities, or the likelihood of being correct in a task.

Eugenics

An example of evolutionary principles being misused to justify discrimination or inappropriate psychological applications.

Experimental Study

A research design where the researcher manipulates a variable to see its effect, involving at least one independent variable and random assignment.

Non-experimental Study

A research design that does not involve manipulating variables or random assignment, such as case studies or observations.

Case Study

An in-depth examination of an individual, group, or situation to provide detailed insight into a topic of interest.

Phineas Gage

A famous case study subject who survived a railroad accident where a tamping rod shot through his head, aiding brain research.

Correlational Study

A research design that examines the relationship between two or more variables without manipulating them.

Correlation does not equal Causation

A key principle stating that a relationship between two variables does not prove that one variable causes the other.

Meta-analysis

A research methodology where researchers combine the results of many different studies on the same topic to look for trends.

Naturalistic Observation

A method where researchers observe and record behavior in a natural setting without interfering or manipulating the environment.

Hypothesis

A testable and falsifiable prediction about the relationship between variables.

Falsifiable

A requirement for a scientific hypothesis, meaning it must be possible to prove the statement wrong.

Operational Definition

An outline of the exact procedures and measurements used in a study to allow for replication by other researchers.

Independent Variable

The variable manipulated or controlled by the researcher; thought of as the 'cause'.

Dependent Variable

The outcome that is measured in a study; thought of as the 'effect'.

Confounding Variable

An unwanted variable that can influence results, making it hard to determine if the independent variable caused the observed change.

Population

The entire group that a researcher is interested in studying.

Sample

The selected group of individuals from a population used to represent that population in a study.

Representative Sample

A sample that accurately reflects the characteristics and diversity of the larger population being studied.

Random Sampling

A method where every member of a population has an equal chance of being selected for a study to ensure representation.

Convenience Sampling

Selecting participants based on their availability or ease of access, which may introduce sampling bias.

Sampling Bias

Occurs when a sample does not accurately represent the population, limiting the generalizability of the findings.

Generalizability

The extent to which results of a study can be applied and used to understand the broader population.

Experimental Group

The group in an experiment that receives the treatment or is exposed to the independent variable.

Control Group

The group that does not receive the treatment, serving as a baseline for comparison with the experimental group.

Random Assignment

The process of randomly placing participants into control or experimental groups to ensure groups are similar at the start.

Placebo

A fake treatment with no real effect, such as a sugar pill, given to the control group.

Placebo Effect

When participants experience changes simply because they believe they are receiving a treatment.

Single blind Study

A procedure where participants do not know if they are in the control or experimental group, but the researcher does.

Double blind Study

A procedure where neither the participants nor the researchers interacting with them know who is in the control or experimental group.

Experimenter Bias

When a researcher's expectations or beliefs unconsciously influence the outcome of the study.

Social Desirability Bias

The tendency for participants to respond in ways they believe are socially acceptable rather than being honest.

Quantitative Measures

Data involving numbers and measurable information, such as test scores or reaction times.

Likert Scale

A scale where participants rate their level of agreement with statements, providing quantifiable data on attitudes.

Qualitative Measures

Data involving descriptions and observations that are not numerical, such as structured interviews.

Structured Interview

A qualitative research method where researchers ask open-ended questions to gain in-depth answers from participants.

Peer Review

When experts evaluate a study's methods and conclusions before publication to ensure quality and accuracy.

Replication

When other researchers repeat a study to see if they get the same results, strengthening the original conclusions.

Directionality Problem

The issue in correlational research where it is unclear which variable is causing the change in the other.

Third Variable Problem

When an outside, unaccounted-for variable is responsible for the relationship between the two variables being studied.

Self-report Bias

Occurs when participant responses do not reflect true beliefs, often due to a lack of awareness or leading questions.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

A committee that evaluates research proposals to ensure they follow ethical guidelines and protect participants.

Informed Consent

Telling participants the purpose, risks, and right to withdraw from a study before they agree to participate.

Informed Assent

The agreement of a minor to participate in a study in an age-appropriate way, used alongside parental consent.

Confidentiality

The researcher's responsibility to keep a participant's identity private from the public.

Anonymity

A condition where even the researcher does not know which data belongs to which participant.

Deception

Withholding the true purpose of a study from participants, only used when necessary and followed by debriefing.

Confederates

Individuals who appear to be participants but are actually part of the research team playing a specific role.

Debriefing

Explaining the true purpose of a study and revealing any deception to participants at the conclusion of the research.

Mean

The average of a data set, calculated by dividing the sum of values by the number of values.

Outliers

Extreme values in a data set that can heavily influence the mean.

Median

The middle value in a data set when arranged from smallest to largest, which is less affected by outliers.

Mode

The most frequently occurring value in a data set.

Range

A measure of variation representing the difference between the highest and lowest values in a data set.

Standard Deviation

A measure of how spread out values in a data set are from the mean.

Normal Curve

A symmetrical bell-shaped curve where the mean, median, and mode are equal and located at the center.

68% Rule

In a normal distribution, approximately $68\%$ of data falls within one standard deviation of the mean.

95% Rule

In a normal distribution, approximately $95\%$ of data falls within two standard deviations of the mean.

99.7% Rule

In a normal distribution, approximately $99.7\%$ of data falls within three standard deviations of the mean.

Positively Skewed Distribution

A distribution where the tail extends to the right and the mean is greater than the median.

Negatively Skewed Distribution

A distribution where the tail extends to the left and the mean is less than the median.

Bimodal Distribution

A data set that has two modes, appearing as two peaks on a graph.

Percentile Rank

Indicates the percentage of scores in a distribution that fall at or below a particular score.

Regression towards the mean

The statistical phenomenon where extreme scores tend to be followed by scores closer to the average.

Correlation Coefficient

A number ranging from $-1$ to $+1$ that indicates the strength and direction of a relationship.

Positive Correlation

When both variables increase or decrease together, shown as dots trending upward from left to right on a scatter plot.

Negative Correlation

When one variable increases as the other decreases, shown as dots trending downward from left to right on a scatter plot.

No Correlation

When there is no constant relationship between variables and dots appear randomly scattered on a plot.

Effect Size

Indicates the strength of a relationship or the size of the difference between groups, with $0.8$ considered large.

Statistical Significance

A measure of whether results are likely due to chance; calculated using the p-value.

P-value

The probability value; results are considered statistically significant if this value is $\leq 0.05$.

Defensible Claim

A statement or argument supported by logical reasoning or evidence that can be upheld in a debate.

Refuting a Claim

Providing evidence that contradicts a claim to show why it should be rejected.

Scientific Reasoning

The process of using derived evidence to explain how or why a claim, policy, or norm is effective or ineffective.