TERMS

Silk Roads

Overland trade routes connecting East Asia, Central Asia, the Middle East, and Europe, spreading goods, religions, technologies, and disease.

Indian Ocean Trade Network

Maritime trade network linking East Africa, Arabia, South Asia, Southeast Asia, and China, reliant on monsoon winds.

Trans-Saharan Trade

Trade across the Sahara Desert linking North Africa, West Africa, and the Mediterranean, facilitating movement of gold, salt, slaves, and Islam.

Mongol Empire

Largest contiguous land empire in history, established in the 1200s through conquest across Eurasia.

Pax Mongolica

A period of 'Mongol Peace' when Mongol control enhanced safety and connectivity of Eurasian trade routes.

Neo-Confucianism

Revived form of Confucianism in China combining Confucian ethics with Buddhist and Daoist views.

Feudalism

A decentralized political and social system based on landholding, loyalty, and military service.

Serfdom

Labor system where peasants are legally bound to the land and owe labor or payments to landlords.

Tributary System

System where neighboring states paid tribute to a more powerful empire, often in exchange for trade access.

Dar al-Islam

Regions of the world under Islamic rule or influence.

Abbasid Caliphate

Sunni Islamic empire centered in Baghdad, noted for scholarship, trade, and the Islamic Golden Age.

Song Dynasty

Chinese dynasty recognized for commercialization, bureaucracy, Confucian learning, population growth, and technological innovation.

Yuan Dynasty

Mongol-led dynasty in China established by Kublai Khan.

Mansa Musa

Ruler of Mali famous for expanding the empire and his pilgrimage to Mecca.

Swahili Coast

East African coastal region influenced by Indian Ocean trade and multicultural interactions.

Bhakti Movement

Hindu devotional movement in India emphasizing personal devotion and challenging some caste barriers.

Sufism

Mystical form of Islam focused on personal spiritual experiences and devotion.

Crusades

Military campaigns primarily by Christians against Muslims to control the Holy Land, increasing contact with the Islamic world.

Black Death

Bubonic plague pandemic in the 1300s that decimated populations in Afro-Eurasia.

Gunpowder

Chinese invention that transformed warfare through its spread across Eurasia.

Caravanserai

Roadside inns along trade routes providing rest, trading, and protection for merchants.

Astrolabe

Navigational tool used for determining latitude by measuring the positions of stars.

Grand Canal

Major Chinese waterway linking northern and southern China for the movement of goods and people.

Mit’a System

Inca labor tax where people performed public labor for the state.

Chinggis Khan

Founder of the Mongol Empire, also known as Genghis Khan.

Columbian Exchange

Transfer of plants, animals, diseases, and people between the Americas and Afro-Eurasia post-1492.

Atlantic Slave Trade

Forced migration of enslaved Africans to the Americas primarily for plantation labor.

Triangular Trade

Atlantic trade system connecting Europe, Africa, and the Americas through goods, enslaved people, and raw materials.

Mercantilism

Economic system aimed at increasing state wealth through colonies, exports, and trade control.

Encomienda System

Spanish labor system in the Americas where colonists extracted labor or tribute from Indigenous people.

Hacienda System

Large estate system in Spanish America operated often by coerced labor.

Indentured Servitude

Labor system in which individuals worked for a period in exchange for passage or debt repayment.

Commercial Revolution

Period marked by expansion in trade, banking, and global commerce in early modern Europe.

Joint-Stock Company

Business organization funded by investors sharing profits and risks; e.g., Dutch East India Company.

Protestant Reformation

Religious movement challenging Catholic Church authority, resulting in Protestant Christianity.

Martin Luther

German monk who initiated the Protestant Reformation by criticizing church practices.

Scientific Revolution

Era characterized by new methods of inquiry based on observation, experimentation, and reasoning.

Enlightenment

Intellectual movement advocating reason, natural rights, liberty, and criticism of absolute authority.

Gunpowder Empires

Empires that utilized gunpowder weapons to expand and consolidate power, notably the Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal Empires.

Ottoman Empire

Sunni Muslim empire based in Anatolia, expanding to control much of the Middle East, North Africa, and parts of Europe.

Safavid Empire

Shi’a Muslim Persian empire frequently in conflict with the Sunni Ottomans.

Mughal Empire

Muslim-ruled empire in South Asia known for centralized governance and diverse religious practices.

Tokugawa Shogunate

Japanese military government that unified Japan and limited foreign influence from 1600 to 1800.

Absolute Monarchy

Government where a monarch holds concentrated power.

Divine Right

Doctrine asserting that monarchs gain their authority from God.

Spanish Conquest

Conquest of Indigenous empires, such as the Aztec and Inca, by the Spanish in the Americas.

Caravel

Fast and maneuverable Portuguese sailing ship used in Atlantic exploration.

Treaty of Tordesillas

1494 agreement partitioning newly claimed lands outside Europe between Spain and Portugal.

Little Ice Age

Period of cooler climate from the 1300s to 1800s impacting agriculture.

Plantation Economy

Economic system centered on large plantations producing cash crops, often dependent on enslaved labor.

Industrial Revolution

Transition from hand production to machine production, starting in Britain, driven by coal and new technology.

Nationalism

Belief that people sharing culture or history should form their own nation-state.

Imperialism

Extension of a state's control over other regions politically, economically, or militarily.

Liberalism

Political ideology advocating for individual rights and limited governmental power.

Socialism

Ideology advocating for state control over resources to reduce social inequality.

Communism

Radical ideology promoting a classless society and collective ownership of property.

Karl Marx

Philosopher who critiqued capitalism, predicting class struggle would lead to communism.

Adam Smith

Economist known for advocating free markets in 'The Wealth of Nations'.

Capitalism

Economic system characterized by private ownership and market-driven profit.

Factory System

Production method concentrating workers and machines in factories.

Urbanization

Rapid growth of cities due to industrialization and migration.

French Revolution

Revolution beginning in 1789 challenging monarchy and traditional hierarchies in France.

Haitian Revolution

Successful slave revolt resulting in Haiti's independence in 1804.

Latin American Revolutions

Independence movements in Spanish and Portuguese America during the early 1800s.

Napoleon Bonaparte

French leader who expanded power and spread revolutionary reforms in Europe.

Congress of Vienna

1815 meeting restoring conservative order in Europe post-Napoleon.

Social Darwinism

Misapplication of Darwin's theories to justify imperialism and social inequalities.

Scramble for Africa

Rapid European colonization of Africa in the late 19th century.

Berlin Conference

1884-1885 meeting determining rules for colonizing Africa without African input.

Sepoy Rebellion

1857 revolt in India against British East India Company rule.

Meiji Restoration

Period of Japanese modernization and centralization starting in 1868.

Opium Wars

Conflicts between Britain and China over opium trade, leading to unfavorable treaties for China.

Boxer Rebellion

Anti-foreign uprising in China around 1900.

Emancipation of Serfs

1861 reform freeing Russian serfs under Tsar Alexander II.

Unification of Germany

Formation of a unified German Empire in 1871 under Prussian leadership.

World War I

Global conflict from 1914 to 1918 driven by militarism, alliances, and nationalism.

World War II

Global warfare from 1939 to 1945 involving Axis and Allied powers, factors including fascism.

Cold War

Post-WWII ideological conflict between the United States and the Soviet Union.

Decolonization

Process of colonies gaining independence after WWII.

Globalization

Increasing global interconnectedness in trade, culture, and technology.

League of Nations

International organization formed post-WWI to promote peace, though it failed to prevent WWII.

United Nations

International organization established post-WWII to foster global cooperation and security.

Fascism

Authoritarian nationalist ideology prioritizing dictatorship and state loyalty.

Totalitarianism

Political system aiming for total state control over public and private life.

Nazism

Fascist ideology in Germany under Hitler based on racism and expansionism.

Holocaust

Systematic genocide of six million Jews by the Nazis during WWII.

Russian Revolution

1917 uprisings leading to the fall of the monarchy and Bolshevik rule.

Mao Zedong

Communist leader who established the People's Republic of China in 1949.

Chinese Communist Revolution

Civil conflict resulting in Communist victory in 1949.

Great Leap Forward

Mao's campaign for rapid industrialization that caused famine in China.

Cultural Revolution

Mao's initiative attacking traditional culture, leading to social upheaval.

Gandhi / Nonviolent Resistance

Indian leader promoting civil disobedience against British rule.

Partition of India

1947 division of British India into India and Pakistan, resulting in conflict.

Genocide

Deliberate destruction of a national, ethnic, racial, or religious group.

Green Revolution

Innovations in agriculture promoting higher yields through technology.

Neoliberalism

Economic ideology favoring free markets and privatization.

Proxy War

Conflict where major powers support opposing sides instead of fighting each other.

NATO

Military alliance formed in 1949 to counter the Soviet threat.

European Union

Political and economic union of European states promoting trade and cooperation.

Climate Change

Long-term change in Earth's climate, notably modern warming from greenhouse gases.