History Paper 1

Russia 1855-1964

When was Al 2 born, and when did he reign?

Born 1818, became Tsar in 1855, died in 1881.

Around 1855, what % of Russian society were serfs/peasants, what % were illiterate, what % were unfit for military service (1890), what was the average life expectancy?

Roughly 85% Serf, 60% illiterate, 64% unfit for service (around 1890) and average life expectancy under 40 years.

What happened in the Crimean War?

1853-1856 against Ottomans, France and Britain. Huge Russian defeat, over 1 million dead, most due to disease and neglect. Black Sea navy destroyed and then demilitarised.

Consequences of the Crimean War?

At the start of Al 2’s reign, any illusion that Russia was a world power was shattered, exposing not just the incompetence and technological backwardness of the army, but inadequate transport infrastructure and the poor condition & illiteracy of the serfs.

Which two ways of thinking became prominent after the Crimean War?

Both ways wanted reform, even emancipation of the Serfs after the failures in Crimea.

1. Westernisers

• Russia should adopt values and political/economic systems from the West

• Promotion of individual rights and a Parliament

• Industrialise and urbanise

• Want a Parliament & Constitution

2. Slavophiles

• Russia’s own diistinctive culture was superior to the West

• Rejection of Parliamentarianism, individualism, nationalism and atheism

• Emphasis on togetherness and belief in the order and strength of autocracy

• Wanted Tsar to lead an assembly of different social groups

List of assassination attempts on Alexander II?

1866, 1867, 1879, 1879 (People’s Will), 1880, 1881 (Successful, People’s Will)

What was Mir/Obschina?

Peasant communes of family elders and governed land usage, crops, harvest and represented the serfs to the nobility. They had little power over the landlord and this couldn’t protect the serfs.

Effects of Emancipation on Serfs?

• 15% remained ‘temporarily obligated’ until 1881.

• Paid redemption payments to the government for 49 years and remained in the Mir for this time.

• Land distributions were unfair, most received less land than they worked on before and got the worst pieces of land.

• Over 1,000 disturbances in 1861.

Effects of emancipation on the Mir?

• Collected redemption payments.

• Issued internal passports, controlling the movement of peasants.

• Made sure peasants couldn’t sell their land.

• Overall made peasants less independent of the Mir.

Effects of emancipation on Landlords/Nobility?

• Landlords kept ~ 2/3rds of land.

• Landlords paid for land they lost.

• Nevertheless disgruntled as they lost influence, felt cheated.

• Many spent their redemption payments on simple pleasures, leading to bankruptcy.

What did Dmitri Milyutin do?

Focused on military reform.

• Lectured on the importance of military statistics.

• Became Minister of War in 1861.

• Freed his own serfs before emancipation.

• Modern rifles and artillery

• Compulsory military service for 21 yr olds (previously 25 yr olds) for 6 years.

What did Nikolay Milyutin do?

• Drafted much of the 1861 Emancipation Manifesto

What were the Zemstva?

Local governments set up in 1864. 34-35, later expanded to 43 provinces. Built roads, facilities, start of social reform.

How was education reformed under Alexander II?

Previously: ran by church, few teachers, poor quality, high illiteracy.

After reforms under Zemstva: pupils doubled. From 1856-’78, primary school students rose from 8,000 to 25,000. Secondary became free for all classes. Unis more free, open and liberal.

How was the judiciary reformed under Alexander II?

Previously: corrupt, many delays, inefficient. Huge variety of courts. Judges illiterate, secretaries bribed.

After reforms: fewer courts, judges more independent, courts open. Juries for serious cases, testimonies oral, more Western system.

A problem with Alexander II’s approach to reform?

Al 2 tried to reform society without addressing the fundamental backwardness of the Tsarist regime, Alexander tried to go through the central path.

• Conservatives thought he went too far, resenting their loss of power.

• Liberals believed that reforms hadn’t gone far enough.

• Extremists wanted the end of Tsarist Authority and were willing to commit acts of terrorism to achieve this.

Two thinkers against the Tsar?

1. Chernyshevsky: wrote What is to be Done (1863). In many ways paved the way for 1917-Lenin wrote a book with the same title. Not an advocate of violent revolution, but helped to inspire the next generation.

2. Bakunin: anarchist and anti-socialist, but translated Marx’s Communist Manifesto into Russian in 1869. Supporter of revolution via any means.

History of People’s Will?

1876- Land and Liberty formed.

1879- Land and Liberty split into two factions: the minority against terrorism such as Plekhanov formed Black Repartition, but the majority, that supported terrorism, formed People’s Will.

1879- condemned Al 2 to death.

1881- successfully assassinated Al 2.

What was Alexander III’s character?

6 foot 3”. Large man- broad shoulders: Impression of immense authority. Raised by his Grandfather with military authority- always 2nd in line to the throne. Generally seen as being of limited intelligence but sincere and diligent. Family man.

What was the Manifesto on Unshakeable Authority?

29th April 1881. Rejected some of Al 2’s more liberal reforms, declaring Tsar as having power from God to protect Russia. Called the reforms tantamount to revolution, suggesting that reforms and tolerance for western ideas led to his father’s assassination.

Who was Konstantin Pobedonostsev?

Advised Al 2, Al 3 and Nick 2. Tutored Al 3 and Nick 2. Leading reactionary and pro-autocratic figure and was Chief Procurator of the Holy Synod, holding supreme state power over the Orthodox Church. Influenced, if not wrote, the Manifesto on Unshakeable Authority.

Okhrana?

Tsarist secret police from 1881-1917. Perpetually underfunded and understaffed- never had more than 10% of police budget and never had more than 2,000 informants. Put effort into infiltrating, observing, and undermining revolutionary organisations.

Situation of Jewish People under Al 3?

Around 5 million in the 1880s. Forced to live in an area called Pale of Settlement, around Eastern Ukraine and Poland. Under Al 3, Jews outside the Pale could be deported to there, and weren’t allowed to run businesses. Early 1880s saw huge Pogroms and mass emigration.

Ukraine under Al 3?

Second largest ethnic group, big influence and held key government positions. Integrated into the Empire and loyal to the Tsar. Ukrainian cultural societies in towns. Tsar prohibited Ukrainian books and plays.

Poland under Al 3?

Never wanted to be part of the Tsarist Regime. Al 2’s reforms gave more autonomy but raised expectations. 1863 Polish rising, many also took part in the 1905 Revolution. Any revolutionaries were sent to Siberia for 25 years.

Finland under Al 3?

3.1 million. Russia respected Finland’s special position in the Empire. Law on conscription, had to serve in the Finnish army. Lots of freedoms.

How was power structured under Al 3?

1. Tsar: autocrat in control of policy, all ministers reported to him.

2. Senate: final court of appeal. Adjudicator over boundary disputes, dealt with titles of nobles.

3. Imperial Council of State: members appointed by Tsar, gave advice on legal and financial matters.

4. Council of Ministers: chaired by Tsar, consisted of nominated officials, drafted legislation for the committee, abandoned by Al III in 1882.

5. Committee of Ministers: ministers appointed by Tsar responsible for admin of gov. affairs. Reported directly to Tsar. Didn’t create policies. Ministers of Interior, Finance, War, Procurator of Holy Synod.

5 Powers Al 3 gave himself?

• Prohibited gathering of over 12 people.

• Police can declare any citizen subject to surveillance.

• Zemstvas further controlled by the Ministry of the Interior.

• Court Martials used to make some cases less public.

• Nationwide police offensive after Al 2’s death with over 10,000 arrests.

Key Parts of Witte’s development of Heavy Industry?

State brought 2/3rds of steel production by 1899, with nearly 60% of all iron and steel going towards the railways. 3,000 miles of rail in 1866 → 43850 miles in 1913.

Key Parts of Witte’s foreign work?

Sought loans, investment, and expertise. 16 foreign companies operating in Russia in 1888 → 269 operating in 1900. By 1900, 1/3 of the capital of Russian companies came from foreign investment. High tariffs on foreign industrial goods.

Key Parts of Witte’s economic strategy?

Russia built up its gold reserves and in 1897 adopted the gold standard for the Rouble. A stable currency is essential to attract further capital from abroad. Exchange rates for the Rouble were now fixed against other gold-backed currencies.

Key parts of Witte’s taxation strategy?

Impact of indirect taxation hit peasants hardest as they were forced to sell more grain to buy goods. This allowed Witte to increase grain exports. Workers wages were kept low in order to reinvest into more industrial development. Vodka made state monopoly in 1894, made up ¼ of state revenue by 1910.

Importance of grain exports under Witte?

Grain exports were the main means by which Russia could earn more foreign currency to pay the high interest charged on foreign loans and for foreign imports.

How much did rail grow under Al 2?

3,000 miles in 1866 → 13,000 miles in 1881.

Stats for industrial output increases?

From 1890-1900,

• Iron and steel from 325 million to 2700 million pounds a year.

• Coal output tripled.

• Production of cotton cloth increased by 2/3rds.

Moscow was the fastest growing city east of New York.

Reasons behind Witte’s dismissal?

1903- he had attracted criticism from conservatives who believed he was undermining social order. His harsh taxation policies were also criticised. An international recession starting in 1899 slowed down much expansion and output in basic industries, particularly the ones that had been growing quickly, slowed.

Downsides of Witte’s strategy?

• Witte neglected agriculture, which suffered from underinvestment.

• By 1900 20% of the budget was spent paying foreign debts (10x the budget for education).

• Witte prioritised heavy over light industry - the smaller, sophisticated machine tool and electrical industries that would have reduced needs for imports and helped modernise manufacturing.

• Prioritised industrial development over the welfare of the population, leading to appalling conditions in cities and towns which led to strikes, discontent and general unrest.

• Failed to develop a market in consumer products which would have made life more bearable for ordinary people.

Who was Pyotr Stolypin?

Became Minister of the Interior in 1906 and then PM when Goremykin resigned in the same year. PM from 1906-1911, when he was assassinated by a leftist revolutionary.

Positive Reforms by Stolypin?

• Reduced the power of the Mir.

• Allowed peasants to leave the Mir to consolidate land.

• Redistribute the land of nobles.

• Encouraged emigration from more overpopulated rural districts- Siberia turned into a major agricultural district by 1915.

• Helped peasants buy land from less enterprising peasants in order to create bigger, more efficient farms.

Downsides of Stolypin’s reforms?

• By 1914, only 10% of land had been transferred from communal to private ownership.

• Landowners were often reluctant to give up land. 50% of land remained in the hands of private ownership.

• Probably <1% of peasants achieved Kulak status.

How did Al 3 die?

In 1894 at the age of 48 from kidney inflammation.

Nicholas 2 overview?

Born 1868, reigned from 1894 to 1917, died in 1918. Seen by many as easily influenced, incompetent, too devoted to his family, and detached from his subjects. Yet he was also seen as kind, deeply religious, and a loving family man.

What were the 3 main opposition groups 1895-1905?

Liberals, Socialist Revolutionaries (SRs), Social Democrats (SDs).

Who were the Liberals?

Traced back to the intelligensia from 1850s/60s. The Zemstva created people skilled in local politics. Believed in civil rights, democracy, rule of law, and limitations on the Tsar. Mainly middle class, worked through reforms and legal avenues such as newspapers and meetings.

Who were the SRs?

Populist movement challenging the Tsar. Variety of views with loose association and varying desire for violence. SR extremists assassinated as many as 2,000 officials between 1901 and 1905. Consisted traditionally of peasants but was made up of ~50% industrial workers by 1905. Favoured agitation, terrorism, and assassination of government officials.

Who were the SDs?

Saw Marx’s work as the answer where communism failed. Split into 2 at the second party conference in 1903.

1. Bolsheviks: ‘Majoritarians’. Lenin wanted the party to consist of a small number of professional revolutionaries. Small cell system, harder for police to infiltrate. Tended to attract younger workers due to simple slogans.

2. Mensheviks: ‘Minoritarians’. Believed party should be broadly based and welcoming. More democratic with all members making policies. Believed that the emergence of Bourgeois governments would lead to class consciousness. Tended to attract a variety of workers, particularly non-Russians and Jews.

Causes of Russo-Japanese War 1904-1905?

• Industrialists and traders saw commercial opportunities in the East.

• The army and navy wanted to show off their capabilities.

• Patriotism needed a boost due to the ongoing economic depression.

• Control of the Pacific Coast offered security and was strategically advantageous.

• Plevhe (Minister of Interior) believed a quick victory would ‘distract the masses’.

What was Bloody Sunday?

9th March 1905, a strike with 3,000-50,000 workers participating, led by Father Gapon. They marched towards the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg, and were met with around 10,000 troops. Moderate estimates claim that around 1,000 people were killed or injured. 400,000 people on strike by the end of Jasn, This ran paralllel to the humiliation in Japan.

What was the Potemkin mutiny?

14 June 1914- Crew of the battleship Potemkin mutinied over harsh conditions and rotting rations. They sailed to Odessa which was engulfed in protests. Loyalist troops killed as many as 2,000. Wake up call to the importance of the army’s loyalty.

What was the October Manifesto?

Introduced by Tsar Nicholas on 17th October 1905, encouraged by advisers, especially Witte. Brought about civil liberties, including the freedoms of speech, of conscience, and of association, along with an elected Duma, which had to approve all laws before they were passed.

Immediate consequences of the October Manifesto?

Two new parties: Octobrists (more upper class/conservative) and Constitutional Democrats/Kadets formed, representing two different strains of liberalism. The manifesto had managed to cool down any immediate liberal opposition. By the end of October, lots of violence erupted in the streets, perpetrated by right-wing paramilitary gangs called the Black Hundreds, tacitly supported by the police. The violence was focused on left-wingers and liberals, alongside a Pogrom on many Jewish people.

Key Aspects of the Fundamental Laws (1906)?

Article 87- Allowed the Tsar to dismiss Duma, and be in complete control when the Duma was not assembled.

The Russian state is one and indivisible, and Russian was reinforced as the national language, compulsory in public and state institutions. The Tsar had to approve all laws. The Tsar is the commander in chief of army and navy.

Who were the Trudoviks?

Non-revolutionary SR breakaway, moderate liberal views. Favoured nationalisation and minimum wage along with other rights for workers. Had support from both peasants and intelligensia. Won 136 seats and 104 seats in the first and second Dumas, respectively.

First Duma overview?

Nickname: Duma ‘of National Hope’.

May - July 1906.

Largest Party: Kadets - 182 seats

• Radical in its approach and demands, confused atmosphere as diverse groups clashed in a new environment.

• Kadets demanding: land reform, progressive income tax, health insurance at employer’s expense, factory inspectors.

• Bitter quarrelling on land, factories and Jewish rights.

• Duma dissolved.

Showed that the Duma had no political authority. Tsar had no patience for public opposition.

Second Duma Overview?

Nickname: Duma ‘of national anger’.

Feb - June 1907.

Largest party: Trudoviks - 104 seats.

• Stolypin was concerned that ignoring the Dumas could lead to collapse and revolution.

• Shift from moderates to extreme left.

• Disorganised again, couldn’t form opposition or support.

• Dissolved after police uncovered an alleged insurrection plan from SD Duma members.

Achieved relaxed censorship, legal recognition of political parties, greater freedom of expression.

Third Duma Overview?

Nickname: Duma ‘of Lords and Lackeys’.

Nov 1907 - June 1912.

Largest Party: Octobrists - 154 seats.

• Achieved two major reforms but led to a breakdown in Duma-Government relations.

• Stolypin lost support as he got Nick II to use Article 87 to suspend the Duma in order to stop Zemstva being introduced to the West.

• Achieved accident and health insurance for workers and restored the office of justice and peace.

• Saw a large swing to the Right - Rightists/Nationalists second largest group.

However, the Duma was now a government puppet.

Fourth Duma Overview?

No Nickname.

1912-1917.

Largest Party: Nationalists - 120 seats.

• Regime reliant on extreme right, Nick II didn’t realise he had to expand his base.

• Many strikes- police had to arrest strike leaders at Lena Gold mine, 270 killed. (Lena Goldfields massacre).

• If not for WWI and patriotism, Duma may have challenged the regime.

• Stolypin (assassinated 1911)’s reforms failed to satisfy peasants.

• Reformed church (more independent) and education.

Franchise had been limited to riches 30% of men.

Goremykin overview?

Ivan Goremykin - 1839-1917. Strong conservative, Min. of Int. Affairs 1895-’99, PM 1906. Close ally to Rasputin, became PM again in 1914, retired 1916. Murdered in 1917 as recognised as an ex-Tsarist.

What happened in the Battle of Tannenberg?

August 1914, first month of WWI. 70,000 - 120,000 Russians dead, wounded or captured, wiping out half of 2nd Russian Army, compared to 13,000/30,000 German losses.

Overview of WWI?

Failure to secure a quick victory against Germany in 1914. Initially the Russian army made advances and the majority of Russians supported the war. Within months, Russian forces suffered defeats at Tannenberg and Masurian Lakes (Twice, expelling Russian forces from East Prussia). Russia suffered ~230,000 more casualties than Germany. Russia was exposed as lacking in planning coordination, tactics, supplies and technology. By 1917, there was widespread discontent.

Causes of February 1917 revolution?

• Chaos in the economy: depression, ongoing war, historic backwards Agrarianism mixed with forced attempts at industrialisation by Witte and Stolypin.

• Nicholas ignored the Duma’s request that he replace his incompetent cabinet. He had also put himself in charge of the disastrous war effort and allowed Rasputin to become quite powerful.

• Increased food shortages due to WWI.

• Stolypin had implemented harsh repressions from 1906-1911 including executions and martial law.

Timeline of Bolshevik road to power?

1. 23rd Feb 1917: Women’s Day march in Petrograd. The next day, more people join and the troops in the city mutiny.

2. 2nd March 1917: Nick II abdicates.

3. Duma forms a provisional government.

4. Petrograd Soviet (elected soviet) continues with Great War

5. April Theses.

6. Disasters in WWI, more mutinies. Protesters shot at.

7. 8th July 1917: Kerensky becomes PM.

8. 16-20th July 1917: July Days, even more unrest than the February revolution.

9. August-September 1917: Kerensky give arms to workers to stop Kornilov affair. Many workers are Bolsheviks, and they are cast as heroes, receive much more support and have their members arrested in the July Days released.

10. 25th October 1917: Bolshevik revolution after Lenin returns again.

What were the April Theses?

Lenin setting out the ideology and direction of the Bolsheviks. Stated, among other tings, that the February revolution had placed power in the hands of the bourgeoisie due to insufficient class consciousness of the proletariat, necessitating another revolution.

All power to the Petrograd Soviet, no cooperation with the Provisional Government.

What was the Provisional Government?

Leading figures are from Kadets and other Liberal parties. Led by Prince Lvov. Ran the country until Constituent assembly had been chosen. Chosen by a committee of the Duma. Alexander Kerensky Minister of Justice.

What was the Petrograd Soviet?

Workers’ and Soldiers’ representatives. Socialist intellectuals, mainly Mensheviks and SRs. Protected the interests of the working classes and soldiers. Alexander Kerensky a vice chair.

How was the October Revolution decided upon?

10th October 1917 - The 12 members of the Bolshevik Party Central Committee met to debate on whether the time was right for a Bolshevik revolution. Lenin and Trotsky were in favour of imminent revolution, Zinoviev and Kamenev were against it. The other 8 committee members, including Stalin were undecided. Discussions lasted until the early hours but ultimately Lenin’s reputation and Trotsky’s oratorial skills won over all 8 undecided members.

Kamenev and Zinoviev were so upset that they published their opposition, and Lenin never forgave them.

All members of the Bolshevik party were informed of the decision and were told that ‘an armed uprising is inevitable’.

Timeline of October Revolution?

• Mid-October: Lenin set up the Military Revolutionary Committee, encouraging many working class soldiers to join the Bolsheviks’ cause. It further increased the military might and weapons under the Bolsheviks’ control.

• Mid-October: Kerensky tries to send radical army units away from Petrograd and closes bridges from working class areas of the city to the town centre.

• 24th October: Kerensky, aware that the revolution is likely to take place soon, flees Petrograd.

• 24th-25th October: Under the command of Trotsky, Red Guard members took control of railway stations, power stations, bridges, the post office and the telegram exchange.

• 25th October: The city goes about its regular business, embassies expect the revolution to pass. However, many guards abandon their posts at the Winter Palace, where the Provisional Government met.

• 25th-26th October- The Cruiser Aurora, docked in the harbour fired a blank shot to signal the start of the final stage. The Bolsheviks seized the Winter Palace almost unopposed. They found the room where the Provisional Government was meeting and arrested them.