Psychological factors effecting performance (L6 mock)

define intrinsic feedback

 a type of continuous feedback that comes from proprioceptors – nerve receptors found in muscles, ligaments and joints that pick up movement information.

define extrinsic feedback

 feedback that comes from external sources – for example, from a teacher or a coach.

define positive feedback

reinforces skill learning and gives information about a successful outcome.

define negative feedback

information about unsuccessful outcome, which can be used to build more successful strategies.

define knowledge of results

a type of terminal feedback that gives the performer information about the end result of the response.

define knowledge of performance

 information about how well the movement is being executed, rather than the end result.

Positives of intrinsic feedback and positive example

• Quick

• Usually done straight after action (during a game)

• Good for elite athletes as they know by the kinaesthetic feel if they have done the skill correctly

• e.g. A netball player shoots and knows the shot isn't going to go in due to how they flicked their wrist and released the ball

negatives of intrinsic feedback and a negative example

• Performer may not have the right mental state and so may be over critical of performance (inaccurate perception)

• Some performers may be able to feel and interpret the movements better than others

• e.g. A netball player may give a bad pass and not know that they have as they haven't developed the kinaesthetic feel for a good pass yet.

positives of extrinsic feedback and positive example

• A coach can give constructive feedback of things you may not have noticed, leading to improvement - as long as the information is accurate and relevant

• e.g.A coach tells a netball shooter to bend their legs more when they shoot and so they get more goals in

negatives of extrinsic feedback and negative examples

• Inaccurate feedback can affect performance negatively and may result in negative transfer

• It can also cause players motivation to drop

• e.g. A coach tells a player to keep straight legs when shooting which results in getting less shots in which then leads to demotivation

positives of positive feedback and positive example

• Can lead to positive reinforcement and so strengthens the correct S-R bond

• Can be very motivating, especially for cognitive stage learners

• Build self-esteem and confidence

• e.g. A coach praises a goal defence for a good interception so they do those type of interceptions more

negatives of positive feedback and negative example

• If undeserved the performer may build inappropriate S-R bonds and so performance may deteriorate  

• Some performers may not respond well to praise and so may ignore the feedback, hindering performance and learning  

• e.g. a coach praises a player for contacting another in netball and so they do it more and they get more warnings and sent off more  

positives of negative feedback and positive example

• Some players are motivated by negative feedback and become more determined  

• It makes it clear to the performer of all the stuff they need to improve on 

• Most suited to autonomous players who require further refinement of their skills  

• e.g. A coach critiques how a netball player holds so they will change it so it becomes stronger and harder to intercept   

negatives of negative feedback and negative example

• Can be demotivating to the performer especially if cognitive stage of learning or don’t take criticism well  

• May be detrimental to the learning process if the feedback is inaccurate  

• A netball coach over critiques a beginner when they miss a shot, demotivating them  

positives of knowledge of results and positive example

• It is definite how it went - won or lost  

• Good for setting targets - like I want to come in the top 3 etc.  

• If it is good it can help build confidence  

• A netball player may win a match by over half helping them build confidence  

negatives of knowledge of results and negative example

• Easy to become demotivated if the performer doesn't win or meet target  

• Easy to become fixated on end result rather than individual performance and so performance may deteriorate  

• A netball player may lose even though they played well and may feel demotivated even though they played well  

positives of knowledge of performance and positive example

• Helps the performer focus on individual skills  

• Easier to improve specific skills  

• A netball player successfully getting a long shot in. 

negatives of knowledge of performance and negative example

• Performance may not be representative of final result  

• Performer may have an inaccurate perception of their skill/performance which may lead to demotivation  

• A netball player may think they did bad dodge because they are harsh on themselves and so they think they played bad leading to demotivation 

why is giving effective feedback important?

Giving effective feedback is important to help the individual accept it and be able to use it to improve their performance and overall success. 

For feedback to be effective, what 5 elements are needed?

• type of feedback considered 

• a limited amount of information  

• immediacy  

• has the meaning for the individual  

• facilitates intrinsic feedback  

define performance

•  a temporary measurement which can alter from time to time.

• It differs from the term learning in that learning is relatively more permanent.

define grooved

 a skill that is over learnt.

what are the 3 phases of learning?

• cognitive

• associative

• autonomous

what is the cognitive stage like? (and example)

• 1^st stage.

• Lots of trial and error, meaning lots of mistakes.

• Movement is jerky and inconsistent, lack of fluency and needs extrinsic input as lack of kinesthesis.

• Practical example: a beginner netball may miss more shots then she would score as she doesn't know how to do it.

what is the associative stage like? (and example)

• 2^nd stage.

• Reduction in mistakes in trial and error.

• Movement is becoming more fluent and consistent.

• Performer is developing kinesthesis.

• Tends to be the longest phase of learning and some will never leave it.

• Practical example: there is less mistakes when the netballer takes shots and the movement is more fluent.

what is the autonomous stage like? (and example)

• 3^rd stage.

• Movement is fluent, accurate and habitual (don’t have to think about it and perform it in a range of environments).

• Little to no conscious thought about the movement, instead attention can be given to tactics and adaptions.

• Performer does not have to be professional.

• Practical example: the netballer has very accurate shooting and doesn't have to think about it but can instead also think about other adaptions like standing on one foot.

what might a coach use to help get between stages of learning?

• Positive feedback or reinforcement.

• Allowing lots of time to practice.

• Helping performer to understand what went wrong by identifying aspects of the performance that they need to improve and helping them to be able feel this themselves (intrinsic feedback).

• Giving lots of verbal guidance to highlight key parts of the skill.

• Physically supporting them through the skill to reduce the aspects of fear

what are the 4 types of guidance?

• verbal

• visual

• manual

• mechanical

define verbal (and example)

• Telling a performer how to perform a skill.

• e.g. Telling a performer how to do a dodge or giving technical advice.

 

define visual (and example)

• Showing/demonstrating a performer how to perform a skill

• e.g. a coach demonstrating a cartwheel

define manual (and example)

• Using physical support from another person such as a coach

• e.g. dance teacher moves student into the correct position

define mechanical (and example)

• Using aids or equipment to perform a skill

• e.g. Using a harness when learning to front flip on a trampoline

Advantages of verbal guidance

• More effective for autonomous / associative learners

• Questioning techniques can lead to effective learning

• Can be motivational + give confidence

• Improves understanding of skill

• Quick

disadvantages of verbal guidance

• Inaccurate guidance can lead to incorrect performance

• Information overload for beginners = overwhelmed

• Can be boring + confusing

advantages of visual guidance

• Helps the performer create a mental image

• Coach can cue the performer in

• Encourages observational learning

• Gives a better understanding of the skill

• Is more effective if done by a role model

disadvantages of visual guidance

• The demonstration could be incorrect or aimed at the wrong level of performance

• It may be too quick for the performer to process

• Static images don’t show how the movement is produced

• Demonstration could be unclear to the performer

advantages of manual guidance

• Can reduce fear

• Can improve confidence and motivation

• Can give a clearer understanding of how to perform a skill

• Can be used to practice or isolate a particular part of the skill to improve

• Can promote kinesthesis

disadvantages of manual guidance

• Can lead to a false sense of kinesthesis or intrinsic feedback could be incorrect

• Performer can become too reliant on the support and not fully participate in performing the skill when practicing it which could reduce motivation

advantages of mechanical guidance

• Can reduce fear

• Can help the performer to carry out the skill in the beginning building confidence and motivation

• It can be used to isolate a particular part of the skill to practice or develop

• Can be useful on all levels

disadvantages of mechanical guidance

• Performer can become too reliant and not develop the ability to perform the skill independently

• Can lead to a false sense of kinesthesis

• Can restrict the performer so that they are not able to fully perform the skill.

what type of learners use visual guidance?

• cognitive

• associative

what type of learners use verbal guidance?

• associative

• autonomous

what type of learners use manual guidance?

• cognitive

what type of learners use mechanical guidance?

• cognitive

• associative

what is cognitive theory of learning?

a Gestaltist view of learning which suggests the skill should be learnt in its entirety using whole practice.

what does this cognitive theory of learning theory encourage?

 thinking and problem solving to gain understanding and ability rather than trial and error in a more fixed environment.

what are the 2 key concepts of cognitive theory of learning?

• insight learning

• intervening variable

what is insight learning? (and example)

• This is using problem solving and using memory of effective experiences to solve a new challenge.

• e.g. being told to always pass with the ball high over your head in netball.

what is an intervening variable? (and example)

• Factors that cause the mental processes involved in decision making.

• e.g. in netball you may need to do a drop ball or bounce pass into the circle due to where defenders arms are.

 

what are some advantages of cognitive learning theory?

• performers can become more independent and self correct during a game

• performers can adapt better to different situations

• performers can make quick progress

• performers can develop kinesthesis

what are some disadvantages of the cognitive learning theory?

• using whole practice might be a problem if the skill is too difficult or dangerous if the performer is a beginner

• learning could be slower if the performer doesn’t understand what to do and therefore might lose motivation.

• performers might not have any past experiences to draw on

what is a simple definition of operant conditioning?

• learning using trial and error

• conditioning the most effective response through practice.

what happens if a performer is rewarded?

they are more likely to do it again

what is reinforcement?

• anything that increases the likelihood that a response will occur.

• It is defined by the effect that it has on behaviour – it increases or strengthens the response.

what are behaviourist theories?

• These are theories that explain how our actions are linked to certain stimuli.

• Based on idea that all behaviours are acquired through conditioning.

• Conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment.

• Our responses to environment shape our actions.

is operant conditioning a behaviourist theory? why?

• yes

• it links stimulus to response

who was the main psychologist who conducted the development of operant conditioning?

Skinner

what was the development of operant conditioning?

• Based on 1948 work of behavioural psychologist B.F. Skinner, which is it is sometimes referred to as Skinnerian conditioning.

• Skinner was interested in how consequences of people's actions influenced their behaviour.

• Skinner used the word operant to refer to any 'active behaviour that operates upon the environment to generate consequences'.

• Discovery came from his work observing rats in a 'skinner box'.

• When rats touched a bar food was given and they learnt to press the bar.

define a satisfier

an action that gives a pleasant feeling so that response is likely to be repeated.

define an annoyer

an action that creates disappointment and unease, meaning that the incorrect response is avoided in the future.

what are the 3 issues of operant conditioning?

• Based on trial and error.

• Uses reinforcement.

• Environment can be manipulated to encourage the correct response.

how does operant conditioning work?

• It strengthens the bond between the stimulus and response bond (S-R bond)

• Linking the stimulus to the response using operant conditioning involves positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement and punishment.

• These all aid the shaping of behaviour.

what is positive reinforcement and a sporting example?

• Involves an additional, pleasant stimulus after the correct response.

• Sporting example: a coach giving sweets to a tennis player when there serve lands in.

what is negative reinforcement and a sporting example?

• The removal of a negative or unpleasant stimulus after the correct response in order to strengthen a behaviour. 

• Sporting example: taking away negative criticism when a skill is performed correctly, like the coach stopping shouting when instructions at a player when they make a successful cross.

what is punishment and a sporting example?

• Presenting an unpleasant stimulus to weaken behaviour and prevent the incorrect action occurring again.

• Sporting example: a coach makes a player sprint when he makes a bad pass.

what is the difference between negative reinforcement and punishment?

• negative reinforcement is taking away something and punishment is adding something even if it is negative (e.g. a red card)

what is mental practice?

anything that involves practising a skill or technique in the mind, like visualization or imagery.

what are Thorndike’s 3 laws?

• law of exercise

• law of effect

• law of readiness

what is the law of exercise? (and example)

• skills improve through training so you train with more focus.

• e.g. A goal defence repeatedly practises chest passes and shoulder passes in training. Through constant repetition, the correct passing technique becomes automatic, improving accuracy during a match.

what is the law of effect? (and example)

• positive outcome or satisfaction from practice makes you continue.

• e.g. A centre successfully intercepts a pass and receives praise from the coach. This positive reinforcement increases the likelihood that the player will attempt similar interceptions again in future games.

what is the law of readiness? (and example)

• you need to be physically and mentally strong enough to do the skill you are practicing or learning.

• A wing defence who understands defensive positioning and is fully warmed up is ready to learn a new zone defence strategy. As a result, they pick up the tactic quickly and apply it effectively in a game.

advantages of operant conditioning

• Encourages learning through rewards

• Increases motivation and confidence

• Effective for beginners

• Clear feedback shows what is right or wrong

• Helps reduce incorrect behaviour

disadvantages of operant conditioning

• Performer may become dependent on rewards

• Learning may stop if rewards are removed

• Limited understanding and decision-making

• Less effective for open skills

• Punishment can increase anxiety and reduce confidence

• Ignores intervening variables (e.g. emotions)

who was social learning theory developed by?

Bandura (a psychologist)

what is social learning theory?

It is based on watching and copying behaviour and social interaction from significant others.

define significant others

• these are people who are role models to us.

• they are important to us and therefore we are more likely to pay attention to them and copy their behaviour.

• for the theory to be effective the modelling is important.

what are Bandura’s 4 processes?

• attention

• retention

• motor reproduction

• motivation

what is the attention stage in social learning theory? (and example)

• the performer must be paying attention to the demonstration.

• e.g. watching a netball player demonstrate a dodge.

what is the retention stage in social learning theory? (and example)

• the performer must be able to remember the demonstration.

• e.g. the performer is able to remember how the demonstrator did the dodge.

what is the motor reproduction stage in the social theory of learning? (and examples)

•  the performer must be physically and mentally able to carry out the skill being demonstrated.

• e.g. the performer practices dodging.

what is the motivation stage in the social theory of learning? (and example)

• the performer needs to want to carry out the skill.

• e.g. they have seen the dodge carried out successfully so they are motivated to also be able to do that.

 

what is cueing in the social theory of learning?

• identifying important cues or stimuli

• for example, watching the arm of your opponent when receiving a serve in tennis.

what factors may effect successful modelling in the social theory of learning?

• If the model is the same or similar to you in terms of age/gender/sport

• If they are significant or someone we look up to

• If their behaviour is reinforced/praised

• If the demonstration is high standard/successful

• If the model is friendly or attractive

• If the demonstration is clear/repeated

• If the observer is focused on the relevant cues and can remember what they have seen

• If the observer is motivated

what is selective attention?

focus on relevant information and discard irrelevant information

what is encoding and decoding?

information is passed into the long term memory through a process of encoding and sent back to STM via decoding

what is the sensory memory?

• Selective attention happens here

• Capacity of this store is large

• Only filters information for up to 1 second

what is the short term memory?

• This is the workspace of memory as info is processed

• Can only store 5-9 pieces of information

• Stores it for up to 30 seconds

• Information is organised (chunking) and processed

• Comparison is made with LTM and response is selected to put into action via a motor programme

what is the long term memory?

• Limitless capacity

• Hold information for long periods of time

• Meaningless info not stored in LTM, only stores info that has meaning and is rehearsed

• Info is encoded to store in LTM and decoded to send back to STM for action

• If the skill is more rehearsed it becomes more recognisable and automatic 

give an example of sensory store, STM and LTM (rounders)

• Based on a fielder in Rounders catching a ball and see if you can do that yourself using your own example from sport.

• Sensory Store: the brain perceives the environment e.g.- where the fielders are, where the  batter is moving, the position of the ball, the wind and ground surface condition etc. The performer focuses on the ball and ignores everything else.

• STM: incoming information is interpreted about the ball including the speed, the direction and the distance away from you. Information is encoded and the flight of the ball is remembered. Info is chunked / organised e.g. he batter's position, the flight of the ball and the speed of the ball are organized in the brain. Encoded info is sent to LTM.

• LTM: comparison is made with info stored about previous experiences and learned movement patterns e.g. the way the player has caught the ball successfully before- Encoded information from STM is recognised, relevant performances remembered. This is decoded and sent to the STM to carry out the response of catching the ball.

what is the memory store model called?

Atkinson and Shiffren’s multi store memory models

fill in the gaps of Atkinson and Shiffren’s multi-store memory model

what is Craik and Lockhart’s level of processing?

• Examines how memory works and consider what we do with the information and how we process it (opposed to how we store it)

• The deeper the information is processed, the more  likely we are to remember it

• This model was originally developed looking at how students memorise information for exams

if we want information to be deeply processed and therefore remembered what 3 things must it be?

• Considered

• Understood

• Have meaning

what does the information need to be for it to be deeply processed? (2)

• Detailed

• Correct

what are the 2 memory models we learn about?

• Craik and Lockhart’s levels of processing

• Atkinson and Shiffren’s multi-store memory model

what are the 3 different levels of processing?

• semantic

• phonetic

• structural

what is semantic level of processing?

this considers the actual meaning of the information and the deepest form of processing

what is phonetic level of processing?

this level is processing the way words sound and is a deeper level of processing than structural

what is structural level of processing?

this is paying attention to what the words look like and is a shallow level of processing

the deeper the information is processed….

….the longer the memory trace will last