Anatomy 2 Practical

pulmonary ventilation

breathing

inspiration

air taken into lungs

• respiratory muscles contract: intercostal muscles (rise) and diaphragm (flattens)

• size of thoracic cavity increases and expands the attached lungs

• intrapulmonary volume increases, lowering air pressure within lungs

• causing air to flow into the lungs

nose

• description: external portion supported by bone and cartilage; internal nasal cavity divided in half by midline nasal septum and lined with respiratory mucosa

• function: produces mucus; filters, warms, and moistens incoming air; resonance chamber for speech. Receptors for sense of smell

pharynx

• description: passageway connecting nasal cavity to larynx and oral cavity to esophagus; three divisions: nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx. Houses tonsils

• function: passageway for food and air. Tonsils are lymphoid tissue that responds to inhaled or ingested antigens

trachea

• description: flexible tube running from larynx and dividing inferiorly into two main primary bronchi; walls contain C-shaped cartilage that are incomplete posteriorly where trachealis muscle exists

• function: air passageway; filters, warms, and moistens incoming air

alveoli

• description: microscopic chambers at ends of bronchial tree’ walls of simple squamous epithelium—type 1 alveolar cells—underlain by thin basement membrane’ external surfaces intimately associated with pulmonary capillaries. Simple cuboidal epithelium, consisting of type II alveolar cells, produces surfactant.

• function: main sites for gas exchange. Surfactant reduces surface tension; help prevent lung collapse

lungs

• description: paired composite organs surrounded by pleural cavities of thorax; composed primarily of alveoli and respiratory passageways; stroma is fibrous elastic connective tissue,k allowing lungs to recoil passively during expiration

• function: house passageways smaller than primary bronchi

parietal pleura

• description: lines thoracic cavity

• function: produce lubrication fluid and compartmentalize lungs

visceral pleura

• description: covers external lung surface

• function: produce lubricatin fluid and compartmentalize fluid

tidal volume

• volume of air exchanged with normal, quiet breathing

• average male: 500 mL

• average female: 500 mL

inspiratory reserve volume

• maximum volume of air that can be forcibly inspired after a tidal inspiration

• average male: 3100 mL

• average female: 1900 mL

expiratory reserve volume

• maximum volume of air that can be forcibly expired after a tidal expiration

• average male: 1200 mL

• average female: 700 mL

residual volume

• volume of air that remains in the lungs after forced expiration

• average male: 1200 mL

• average female: 1100 mL

inspiratory capacity

• total amount of air that can be inspired; equalt ot tidal volume plus inspiratory reserve volume

• TV + IRV =

• average male: 3600 mL

• average female: 2400 mL

functional residual capacity

• total amount of air that normally remains in the lungs after a tidal expiration; equal to the residual volume plus expiratory reserve volume

• ERV + RV

• average male: 2400 mL

• average female: 1800 mL

vital capacity

• total amount of exchangeable air; equal to sum of the tidal volume, expiratory reserve volume, and inspiratory reserve volume

• TV + IRV + ERV =

• average male: 4800 mL

• average female: 3100 mL

total lung capacity

• total amount of exchangeable and nonexchangeable air; equal to the sum of all the pulmonary volumes

• TV + IRV + ERV + RV =

• average male: 6000 mL

• average female: 4200 mL

thyroid cartilage

cricoid cartilage

arytenoid cartilage

glottis

epiglottis

diaphragm

• muscle of inspiration

  • contracts, moves inferiorly, and flattens, expanding the thoracic cavity and compressing the abdominal organs

external intercostal muscle

• muscle of inspiration

  • pull the ribs up and out to further expand the thoracic cavity

internal intercostal muscle

• muscle of expiration

  • pull the ribs down and in, compressing the thoracic cavity during forced expiration

primary bronchi

secondary bronchi

segmental bronchi

vocal folds

vestibular folds

right superior lung lobe

right middle lung lobe

right inferior lung lobe

left superior lung lobe

left inferior lung lobe

horizontal fissure

oblique fissure

cardiac notch

hilum (lung)

tracheal cartilage rings

carina

alveolar sacs

elastic baskets

*structure that has yellow lining

type 1 alveolar cells

conducting bronchioles

• the smallest bronchi lead to this type of bronchiole

• lined with simple columnar epithelium

respiratory bronchioles

• conducting bronchioles lead to this type of bronchiole

• lined with simple squamous epithelium

• they later lead to alveolar ducts.

alveolar duct

• structure that leads into alveolar sacs

alveolar macrophage

pulmonary arteriole

pulmonary venule

capillary network (lung)

lung histology

• bronchi

• bronchiole

• alveoli

esophagus

• muscular tube extending from the pharynx to the stomach

• lined with stratified squamous epithelium

• muscularis of superior third is skeletal, middle third is both skeletal and smooth, and inferior third is smooth muscle

• functions in propulsion with limited secretion

stomach

• J-shaped muscular organ extending from the esophagus to the duodenum

• lined with simple columnar epithelium

• the mucosa is folded into rugae and contains gastric pits

• muscularis contains a third layer of oblique smooth muscle

• functions in propulsion, chemical digestion, mechanical digestion, and secretion with limited absorption

cardiac region stomach

fundic region stomach

body region stomach

pyloric region

greater curvature stomach

lesser curvature stomach

stomach rugae

pyloric sphincter

small intestine

• long tube extending from the stomach to the large intestine

• lined with simple columnar epithelium

• wall arranged into three progressively small structures: circular folds, villi, and microvilli

• functions in chemical digestion, mechanical digestion, absorption, secretion, propulsion.

duodenal region

• first region of small intestine

jejunal region

• middle region of small intestine

ileal region

• final region of small intestine

cecum

appendix

large intestine

• terminal portion of the alimentary canal extending from the small intestine ot the anal canal

• lined with simple columnar epithelium

• muscularis arranged into ribbon-like taeniae coli

• contains a large number of bacterial flora

• functions in the absorption of water, electrolytes, and vitamins, propulsion, defecation, and limited secretion.

ascending colon

transverse colon

descending colon

liver

• consists of hexagonal liver lobules surrounding a central vein

• lobules contain plates of hepatocytes

• functions in bile production and excretion (excretes waste in bile)

left lobe liver

right lobe liver

quadrate lobe liver

caudate lobe liver

hepatic portal vein

gallbladder

• muscular sac on the posteriorinferior liver

• stores, concentrates, and releases bile

cystic duct

bile duct

common hepatic duct

falciform ligament

mesentery

pancreas

• consists of pancreatic acini, composed of acinar cells surrounding a duct

• functions:

  • secretes enzymes that catalyze chemical digestion of lipids, carbs, proteins, and nucleic acids

  • secretes bicarbonate ions to neutralize acidic chyme

pancreatic duct

head of pancreas

tail of pancreas

rectum

anus

esophagus histology

• mucosa

• muscularis mucosae

• submucosa

• muscularis externa

• serosa

stomach histology

• mucosa

• muscularis mucosa

• submucosa

• muscularis externa

• serosa

• gastric pit

• mucous neck cells

• parietal cells

• chief cells

small intestine histology

• mucosa

• muscularis mucosa

• submucosa

• muscularis externa

• serosa

• enteroendocrine cell

• enterocyte

• paneth cell

• goblet cells

• duodenal glands

large intestine histology

• mucosa

• muscularis mucosa

• submucosa

• muscularis externa

• serosa

• colonocyte

• goblet cell

sublingual salivary gland histology

• mucous cells

• ducts

• serous acini cells

liver histology

• lobule

• central vein of lobule

pancreas histology

chewing

This process involves the mechanical breakdown of food by the teeth and is controlled by a specific group of muscles and joints

peristalsis

an involuntary, wave-like series of muscle contractions and relaxations that propel substances through tubular organs.

receptive relaxation

a physiological reflex in the stomach where the proximal portion (fundus and body) relaxes to accommodate incoming food without a significant increase in intragastric pressure