english metalanguage 3/4

subsystems of language

phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics

phonology

the study of the patterns that speech sounds form within a language

phonetics

the study of how we make speech sounds + how we organise them

inflectional morpheme

grammatical morphemes, give us grammatical information (always a suffix), makes it plural or past tense

derivational morpheme

changes class of word eg forms adjective from noun ‘joy’ by adding ‘fun’ to create new word, can also change meaning

morpheme

smallest unit of language that expresses meaning

free morphemes

can stand on their own as words eg apple

bound morphemes

cant stand on their own, need to be attached to other morphemes eg un, s, ness

semiotics

study of signs and processes

signifier

material form of words

signified

the concept that the group of letters represents

sign

can be anything that carries meaning

morphology

study of how words are formed

verb phrase

main verb + auxillary verbs and adverbs

subject

the person or thing the sentence is about

object

the person or thing that is affected by the action of the verb

syntax

the way words are put together to form a sentence

phrase

a head word + modifiers, not a sentence

prepositional phrase

contains a preposition (eg in, at, on, of, to) + object

noun phrase

noun or pronoun + modifiers such as adjectives and determiners

predicate

what is said or written about the subject

assimilation

process that occurs when a speaker makes one sound segment sound similar to a neighbouring one (eg sandwich is generally pronounced “samwich”, the /d/ consonant sound is dropped

vowel reduction

where the vowel sounds change and the quality is reduced (eg saying ‘banana’ normally the initial and final vowel sounds are reduced to a schwa)

elision

when a speaker drops a sound segment, usually involving the omission of an unstressed vowel, consonant or syllable (eg ‘chocolate’ is generally pronounced ‘choklet’, the schwa vowel is elided making it easier to say in connected speech)

insertion

when a speaker adds a sound where there wouldnt normally be one. usually occurs when a word ending with a vowel is immediately followed by a word that begins with a vowel, or when two consonants in a row are difficult to articulate

the IPA

we use the IPA to demonstrate how a single letter (eg, 'o') can be pronounced differently depending on the letters that surround it. E.g. in 'phone' VS 'dogs'. Notice how the 'o' sound is different in each case and, as such, we'd write it differently in each case using the IPA. Same letter of the alphabet, but different sounds and thus IPA symbols.

transcription of english, using the IPA, as described by Harrington, Cox and Evans (1997)

two methods: phonemic and phonetic.

PHONEMIC = broad transcription, involves using a single symbol to represent each unique sound within a language, represented by bracketing the transcription using slashes

PHONETIC = transcribe a speech sound exactly as it is uttered, including all the individual variations and based on the context. transcribed using square brackets

volume

increase or decrease in decibels across an intonation unit. increasing volume on a single syllable can create stress

pitch

relative height, ranging between high and low, of auditory sound. natural for pitch to become high when excited or scared and be lower when we wish to sound serious or authoratative

intonation

patterns of pitch variation. falling intonation - can indicate surety, absoluteness and finality, rising intonation - lighthearted, not serious

stress

the intensity that is placed on a syllable, can change semantic meaning of a sentence depending on the word that has been stressed

tempo

the speed of which a intonation unit is delivered, can b linked to the communication of emotion or intent within a conversational exchange

alliteration

the repetition of phonemes at the beginning of words in a phrase, clause or sentence

assonance

repetition of vowel phonemes across phrases, clauses or sentences

eg: the fleet of jeeps drove through the streets

consonance

the repetition of consonant phonemes, often at syllable final boundaries

eg: the bees in the trees buzzed with ease

onomatopoeia

the process where words are created by the sounds they represent

rhythm

created when the intonation of a set of words is repeated across two or more phrases, clauses or sentences

eg: once upon a midnight dreary, while i pondered, weak and weary

rhyme

the repetition of similar phonemes at the ends of two or more words

eg: the potato cake was fake

shortening

the abbreviation of a word by reducing its length

eg: pram from perambulator

signals informality and in group solidarity

blending

the process of combining 2 or more words where atleast one has undergone a form of abbreviation before joining

eg: kidult (kid + adult)

playful and creative expression of modern ideas, bromance + brunch etc

sentence fragment

incomplete sentence, missing either the subject or the predicate but still makes sense within a text

eg: not now

creates conversational tone and adds emphasis eg no chance

vocal effects (breath, cough, laugh)

variations in voice quality that convey information or emotion

add spontaneity or emotion

clefting

the modification of the syntax of a sentence to emphasise one particular element

it clefting (it followed by a conjugated form of the primary auxillary ‘to be’)

eg: it is potato cakes i like eating

wh clefting (begin with a relative pronoun followed by a conjugated form of the primary auxillary ‘to be’)

eg what i like eating is potato cakes

front / end focus

placing important/new info at the beginning/end of a sentence/clause

front focus = typically when something occurs before the subject

eg: potato cakes i like

end focus = delays delivery of main idea to create prominence or anticipation

eg: the time to paint the house has come (has come as a verb phrase has been moved after the prepositional phrase to give it prominence)

anaphoric reference

when an author or speaker refers to something previously mentioned in a convo/written discourse

maintain cohesion

cataphoric reference

when author/speaker uses a pronoun or other referring expression to refer to something that will be referenced later in the discourse

conjunctions

what links 2 phrases together (eg and, but)

subordinator

place relationships between ideas in the context of time and space or cause and effect

eg: although, after and because

coordinator

joins words, phrases and clauses together to allow for additions, comparisons and contrasts

eg: and, or, but

adverbial

words, phrases or clauses that provide information, often in relation to time, place or manner

eg: firstly, secondary, immediately, finally

deictic reference

expression used in relation to the speaker, listener or context of the communication. signal the people, places, objects, times or situations in which a discourse is occurring

eg: this, you, i, here, same, previous, now, then, sunday

repetition

using the same word to reiterate an idea or topic

creates cohesion or economy

ellipses

omission of words or phrases

creates cohesion or economy

hyperbole (exaggeration)

emphasises emotion

substitution

when alternative words/phrases/clauses are used in place of the original

reduces unnecessary repetition

adjacency pairs

maintains conversational flow

discourse particles (so, well, like)

softens stance or shifts topic

non fluency features (um, i think)

shows planning or hesitation DOESNT INDICATE INFORMALITY

politeness strategies (eg could you maybe?)

reduces impostion and builds rapport

sentence types

imperative, interrogative, declarative, exclamative

discourse and pragmatics

discourse = written or spoken texts that are longer than a sentence

pragmatics = study of how language is used within a given context, and how the context contributes to meaning

cohesion

refers to the way we use grammatical and lexical techniques to link words together to create meaning

cohesion factors (SCARCLIER)

substitution, collocation, adverbials, repetition, conjunctions, lexical choice, info. flow, ellipsis, referencing

collocation

words that typically appear next to eachother in texts. strengthen cohesion by allowing readers/listeners to predict next word in sentence/utterance.

eg: do you like your tea strong or weak

conjunctions

coordinators + subordinators

lexical choice

the role of content words in creating texts: nouns, verbs, adjectives + adverbs. when writing for a purpose, selected words will relate to a topic or concept being discussed, creating cohesion. most relevant = synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy and hypernymy

synonymy

refers to using pairs or groups of words that are equivalent or very similar in meaning

eg: choice, selection + preference

antonymy

relationship of words that are opposite in meaning, unifies them as they can be easily contrasted and compared

eg: hes always been hot and cold with me

hyponymy + hypernymy

hyponym = word that belongs to/ a subtype of a larger category of terms, which is called a hypernym

eg: cat is a hyponym of the animal hypernym, ragdoll is a hyponym of the cat hypernum

information flow

how speakers convey meaning by organising and sequencing their language to effectively communicate w their intended audience. includes: front focus, clefting and end focus.

clefting

refers to the modification of the syntax of a sentence to emphasise a particular element, allowing it to become the focus + increasing cohesion. 2 types = it-clefting and wh-clefting

it-clefting

always begins w ‘it’, directly followed by a conjugated form of the primary auxillary ‘to be”. focus of the sentence follows then additional info completes sentence in form of a subordinate clause

wh-clefting

begins w relative pronoun, often a ‘wh’ word (what, who, how etc), as part of a subordinate clause.

end focus

when new or important info is placed at the end of a sentence/clause, delays delivery of main idea to give prominence or sense of anticipation, surprise or resolution

referencing

occurs when we use an expression to refer to another word, phrase or clause (the referent) within a discourse setting. includes anaphoric, cataphoric and deictic referencing

anaphoric referencing

referring to something that has been previously mentioned in a convo or written discourse. can b achieved thru pronouns or other referring expressions (eg possessive determiners)

allows us to avoid repetition

cataphoric referencing

when an author or speaker uses a pronoun or other referring expression to refer to something that will be mentioned later in the discourse. can build anticipation and set up expectations

deictic reference

expression used in relation to the speaker, listener or context of communication. elements that signal people, places, objects, times or situations in which a discourse is occurring

coherence

the logical and meaningful organisation of a text

formatting

includes font style, spacing, alignment, headings and subheadings, lists, text colours, graphics, margins + white space. visual features giving prominence to more important elements of a text

logical ordering

arranging information in a way that maximises understanding. eg: chronological (time order), sequential (series of steps) and categorical (by topic) ordering

inference

the meaning that the audience makes when considering a text that contains info that isnt overtly present. can often rely on a cultural or social understanding of a particular context

cohesion (as part of coherence)

the elements within a text working together to achieve unity of a text

consistency + conventions

establish + maintain a sense of order, structure and unity in the content, aiding coherence

consistency

when similar concepts or entities are referred to in the same way throughout a text. eg consistent formatting, punctuation, capitalisation, font and spacing contribute to the overall coherence of a text by providing visual cues to a reader + creating a unified presentation

conventions

established rules and expectations for how certain types of texts are structured, organised or presented. can incl. genre specific structures (eg analytical commentary writing)

politeness

refers to the language choices that show consideration, respect + sensitivity toward others, and an awareness of social communication expectations and norms. eg: thanks, please, sorry

positive politeness

refers to the strategies we use to create and maintain social harmony by demonstrating empathy + building rapport. rapport can b reflected thru language that shows friendliness, solidarity, interest + inclusiveness

negative politeness

focuses on reducing the imposition placed on the listener. achieved by indirectness and demonstrating respect for the listeners autonomy. used when the intent is to maintain social harmony or when there is a percieved social distance between participants

features of positive politeness

emphasising similarity (eg: me too, same)

showing interest (eg asking questions)

using humour

offering compliments

inclusive language (eg we, us)

features of negative politeness

hedging (eg could you maybe do this, ‘kind of’

being indirect + ambiguous (vague language to indirectly convey a message, leaving listener to infer the intended meaning)

low modality verbs (eg could, would)

apologising

applying other mitigating strategies (using language to soften the impact or tone of what is being said)

face

used to describe the aspect of the listener that is being acknowledged through politeness strategies. eg: positive face and negative face

positive face

the desire to be seen as competent and liked by others, reflects individuals need for social recognition, appreciation and inclusion.

negative face

desire to be free from imposition and constraints on autonomy, reflects an individuals need for independence, privacy and freedom to act.

face-threatening act

communication that may pose a threat to an individuals positive or negative face, leading to consequences such as embarrassment, loss of face, offence or conflict. eg: making a request, giving directives, complaining, disagreeing, interrupting + delivering bad news

imperative

a sentence which is a command, instruction or request.

telling someone/audience to do something

eg: imagine the incredible view

interrogative

a sentence framed as a question

declarative

a sentence framed as a statement of a fact, declares something

exclamative

sentences which express emotion, add emphasis