psyc 102 lec 6

Language

A set of symbols used for communication; used to convey thoughts and desires; generative aspects are unique to humans

Language Production

The structured and conventional expression of thoughts through words

Speech

The expression of language through sounds

Language Comprehension

The process of understanding spoken, written, or signed language

Phoneme

The smallest unit of sound in a language (e.g., "pig" has three phonemes: p/i/g)

Phonology

The study of how individual sounds or phonemes are used to produce language

Morpheme

The smallest unit of language that conveys meaning (e.g., "pigs" has two morphemes: pig + s)

Semantics

The study of how meaning in language is constructed from individual words and sentences

Lexical Meaning

The dictionary meaning of a word

Syntax

The system for using words and word order to convey meaning (grammar)

Pragmatics

The practical aspects of language usage, including speech pace, gesturing, and body language

Nonverbal Communication

Body language; a component of pragmatics

Language Development – Perceptual Learning (2–4 months)

Babies distinguish all phonemes they will later use for language

Language Development – Cooing (2 months)

Vocalization of vowel-like sounds

Language Development – Babbling (6 months)

Meaningless experimental speech sounds preceding actual language

Language Development – First Words (1 year)

Simple single-word talking begins; comprehension exceeds speech production

Language Development – Telegraphic Speech (2 years)

Simple two-word sentences omitting all but essential words

Language Development – Pragmatics (3 years)

Basic understanding of practical language use, including pausing between sentences

Language Development – Grammar (4 years)

Basic rules of grammar are understood without formal education

Nature Theory of Language (Chomsky)

Children are genetically programmed at birth to learn language; we are born with a Language Acquisition Device (LAD) in the brain

Language Acquisition Device (LAD)

Chomsky's concept of an innate brain mechanism that allows children to easily learn language

Nurture Theory of Language (Skinner)

Language is entirely learned; babies repeat words/sounds that are rewarded with praise or attention

Interactionism (Language)

Experience interacts with biological development to enhance and guide language learning

Critical Period (Language)

A window of time during development when certain influences are necessary for appropriate brain formation for language

Sensitive Period (Language)

A point in development when the brain is more susceptible to language-learning influences; many psychologists believe years before age 13 are vital

Child-Directed Speech

Simple, high-pitched, slow-paced, emotion-charged speech used by adults when speaking with babies and young children

Overregularization

Over-application of newly learned grammatical rules to incorrectly "correct" an irregular part of speech (e.g., saying "thinked" instead of "thought")

Broca's Aphasia

A neurological condition from damage to Broca's area where a person is unable to produce coherent speech

Agrammatism

A symptom of Broca's aphasia; difficulty with grammatical structure in speech

Wernicke's Aphasia

A neurological condition from damage to Wernicke's area where a person cannot understand language; affects both receptive and expressive language

Mental Imagery

The ability to visualize or picture an experience in the mind; activates many of the same brain regions used for the actual sensory experience

Visualization

The ability to picture or visualize an experience (e.g., sitting on a beach, scoring a goal)

Spatial Navigation

The ability to determine and maintain a route from one place to another using mental imagery

Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis

The vocabulary available in a language influences how speakers of that language think; more words for a concept = more complex and detailed thoughts about it

Automatic Processing (Thought)

Seems effortless, requires less attention, and is not usually disrupted by distraction

Effortful/Controlled Processing (Thought)

Requires more effort and attention; relies on a limited capacity system

Cognitive Control

The ability to direct thought in accordance with one's intentions; guides thinking and actions despite distraction

Problem Solving – Step 1

Define the problem: identify your current state, your goal, and the difference between them

Problem Solving – Step 2

Find a strategy: trial and error, insight, algorithm, or heuristic

Trial and Error

A problem-solving strategy that involves trying different solutions until one works

Insight

A sudden realization of the answer to a problem ("eureka" moment)

Algorithm

A step-by-step procedure for solving problems that will always lead to a solution

Heuristic

A mental shortcut for solving problems; does not guarantee a correct solution

When Are Heuristics Used?

When there is too much information, limited time, an unimportant decision, very little information, or when a heuristic naturally comes to mind

Working Backward Heuristic

Starts with the solution and works backward through the problem; works well for problems with well-defined goals

Forming Subgoals Heuristic

Dividing a larger problem into smaller subgoals and working through each step to close the gap between current state and goal

Searching for Analogies Heuristic

Applying a solution used for a past problem to a current problem that shares similar features

Mental Set

The tendency to use problem-solving strategies that have worked in the past; can hinder creativity and flexibility

Functional Fixedness

The tendency to view objects as having only one function; limits creative problem solving

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to seek out information that supports existing beliefs while ignoring or dismissing contradicting evidence

Representative Heuristic

The assumption that individuals share characteristics of the category they belong to (e.g., "He is tall so he must be a basketball player")

Availability Heuristic

Judging easily recalled events as more common based on how frequently or recently they come to mind

Rational Decision Making

Choosing a set of criteria and ranking each alternative by its utility; subject to bounded rationality

Bounded Rationality

The idea that rational decision making is limited by available information, cognitive limitations, and time constraints

Emotional Decision Making

Making irrational decisions based on emotion; people in a positive mood tend to make faster, less rational decisions

Metacognition

Thinking about thinking; includes reviewing memories, reflecting on past learning, and self-reflection

Self-Reflection

Thinking about our own identities, how we influence other people, and our relative self-worth

Theory of Mind

An awareness of one's own mental states and the mental states of others; develops during preschool years (ages 3–5)

OCD (Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder)

A mental disorder associated with abnormal anxiety-provoking thoughts that can lead to ritualistic behaviours; affects about 2% of the population