cad exam 3

Self in infancy (18-20 months)

children can look in mirror and realize the image is themselves

Self in infancy (30 months)

most can recognize photographs

Self in infancy (2 years)

signs of self-awareness include embarrassment shame and self-assertion

Self in childhood (3-4 years)

understand observable characteristics

Physical self in childhood

descriptions like "I'm tall"

Abilities in childhood

descriptions like "I run fast"

Social comparison

engage in comparing self to others in elementary school

Unrealistically positive self-view

children tend to view themselves overly positively

Self in adolescence

self-view characterized by personal fable (belief in uniqueness and immortality)

Personal fable

adolescents believe their experiences are unique and they are invulnerable

Imaginary audience

belief that everyone is focused on their appearance and behavior

Identity

self-portrait made of many aspects developed over time

Identity components

include career political religious relationship intellectual sexual orientation ethnic interests personality and physical identity

Erikson's theory

identity development is the main developmental task leading to identity achievement

Identity confusion

unclear sense of self

Identity foreclosure

commit without exploring based on parents' values or expectations

Negative identity

adopting the opposite of what others value

James Marcia

proposed 4 identity status categories

Identity diffusion

no firm commitments and no progress toward them

Foreclosure status

not engaged in exploration identity based on others

Moratorium status

actively exploring but no commitment yet

Identity achievement status

exploration completed and identity chosen

Identity formation influences

parenting style

Identity formation influences

individual behaviors such as risk behavior

Identity formation influences

social context such as poor communities

Identity formation influences

historical context

Gender

inferences we make about male and female qualities

Biological sex

assigned at birth based on anatomy and chromosomes

Evolutionary arguments for gender development

children raised as opposite gender often still identify with biological sex

Reimer twins case

initially used to argue nurture but later showed strong biological influence

Biological influences (evolutionary approach)

behaviors evolved for survival and reproduction

Male evolutionary traits

more aggressive and risk-taking

Female evolutionary traits

more nurturing and socially bonding

Neuroscience approaches

gender differences reflect hormone ratios

Androgens

key hormones higher in males

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH)

girls exposed to higher androgens show more "boy-typical" behaviors

Organizational influences

hormones affect brain development prenatally or during puberty

Activational influences

hormone fluctuations temporarily affect behavior

Kohlberg's stages (gender)

by ~30 months children establish gender identity

Gender stability (~3-4 years)

understand gender stays the same over time

Gender constancy (~5-7 years)

understand gender does not change with appearance or activities

Gender schema theory

children create mental categories about gender

Ingroup/outgroup schema

classify others as same or different from them

Own-gender schema

learn how to behave based on their gender

Gender schemas

lead to bias and selective memory

Gender-essentialist statements

parents communicate gender expectations

Examples of gender messages

boys don't cry girls are pretty

Gender segregation

begins in preschool with preference for same-sex peers

Gender segregation pattern

avoid peers who break gender norms

Gender segregation universality

occurs across cultures

Media stereotypes

TV shows have more male characters

Media portrayals

often stereotypical

Gender-role intensification

increased pressure to follow gender stereotypes

Examples of intensification

girls focus on appearance boys on toughness

Gender-role flexibility

cognitive development allows broader interests

Gender-role flexibility pattern

more common in girls than boys

Sexual orientation

preference for males or females in romantic/erotic feelings

Coming out process step 1

initial recognition of being different

Coming out process step 2

questioning feelings and contact with others

Coming out process step 3

preference for interaction with same group

Coming out process step 4

full identity acceptance

Bronfenbrenner's ecological model

sociocultural perspective on development

Microsystem

immediate environment where person lives

Mesosystem

connections between microsystems

Exosystem

indirect environmental influences

Macrosystem

broader cultural context

Chronosystem

historical and time-based influences

Baumrind parenting styles (authoritative)

set rules and explain them children are confident competent and socially successful

Authoritarian parenting

strict unresponsive children have low self-esteem and competence

Permissive parenting

few rules children are impulsive with poor self-control and low academic success

Uninvolved parenting

neglectful children have attachment issues and peer problems

SES

economic stress predicts parenting quality

Low SES parenting

more authoritarian

High SES parenting

more authoritative

Teenage parents risk factors

poverty single parent sexual activity peer influence

Teenage parent outcomes for child

behavior problems and cognitive delays

Divorce effects on children

increased depression low self-esteem reduced competence

Divorce impacts

irritability inconsistency and less supervision

Discipline

strategies parents use to teach appropriate behavior

Internalization

child understands why behavior is right or wrong

Other-oriented induction

explaining how behavior affects others

Punishment

decreases behavior

Positive punishment

adding something unpleasant

Negative punishment

removing something good

Reinforcement

increases behavior

Positive reinforcement

adding something good

Negative reinforcement

removing something unpleasant

Spanking/corporal punishment

not effective long-term increases aggression and harms mental health

Alternative discipline strategies

praise good behavior ignore minor misbehavior be consistent use reasoning and communicate