Cancer

Apoptosis

Programmed cell death; a mechanism that cancer cells successfully evade to survive.

Telomeres

Sections of DNA at the ends of chromosomes that protect DNA from fraying and naturally shorten over time with normal cell division.

Telomerase

An enzyme activated by cancer cells that extends the ends of telomeres, preventing them from shortening and leading to cellular immortality.

Proto

oncogenes

Oncogenes

Over

Tumor Suppressors

Genes that prevent uncontrolled cell growth by keeping cells in the resting state (G0); act as the "brakes" on cell division.

Gatekeeper Genes

A type of tumor suppressor that prevents cell division when DNA is damaged (e.g., p53, the "Guardian of the Genome").

Caretaker Genes

A type of tumor suppressor that repairs DNA mutations (e.g., BRCA1).

Tumor Promoters

Biological, chemical, or physical entities (like hormones) that enhance cell growth and division; they do not cause mutations but amplify the effects of carcinogens.

Angiogenesis

The ability of a tumor to form its own blood network to supply itself with nutrients, setting the stage for metastasis.

Tumor Grade

Describes cellular differentiation; G1 is low grade (looks like the original cell), and G4 is high grade (highly abnormal).

Tumor Stage

Describes cancer progression; ranges from Stage 0 (in situ) to Stage IV (metastasized to distant organs).

Carcinoma In Situ

Cancer that is localized to the epithelial tissue/surface membrane and has not broken through the basement membrane.

Invasive Cancer

Cancer that has broken through the basement membrane for deeper penetration into surrounding tissues.

Germ

line Mutations

Somatic Mutations

Acquired mutations caused by environmental exposures such as chemical/physical agents, viruses, or bacteria.

Human Papillomavirus (HPV)

A small, non

Cell Cycle

The process of cellular division, including G0 (resting), G1 (prep for duplication), S (DNA replication), G2 (DNA condenses), and M (cell divides).