psyc AOS2 unit 1

contents from psychology unit 1 AOS2

define the brain vs heart debate

A historical debate as to whether the heart or brain is responsible for mental processes, such as thoughts, emotions, and behaviours.

state the heart hypothesis

The ancient Egyptians perceived the heart to be the primary source of human psychology and wisdom, encapsulating one’s soul and mind. Therefore it was believed that all aspects of personality, logic, and emotion originated in the heart.

state the brain hypothesis

the ancient greek philosophers believed that the brain was solely responsible for mental functions, including personality and logic. This is now the accepted rule.

state the mind body problem

the complex philosophical question as to whether our mind is seperate and distinguishable from our body or whether they are one integrated entity.

when considering the mind body concept we are prompted to ask specific questions, what are they?

is the mind seperate from the body? and is the mind a seperate entity from the brain and the body

state the dualism and monism contemplation

the contemplation of such ideas has lead to two opposing views of the mind - body problem, dualism and monism. Dualism is the belief that the human mind and body are seperate and distinguishable from one another, whereas monism is the belief that the human mind and body are together a singular, complete entity.

state the key points of dualism

the key points are that the mind and body are seperate entities because they are distinguishable by their functions and substance. And that the mind is non - physical whereas our body is made up of physical matter.

state the key points of monism

the key points of monism is the fact that our thoughts are not tangible does not inherently mean that they are a product of physical process. And that brain scan technologies demonstrate that certain physiological processes can take place when certain processes of the mind are used, in a consistent and predictable way.

define phrenology

the study of the shape and size of the human skull to determine personality and mental functions. Phrenology involves studying the lumps and bumps on a persons head allowing them to determine personality and behavioural traits.

what did Franz Joseph Gall do?

phrenology was developed by the German physician Franz Joseph Gall in 1796. It was popular throughout the 19th century. Gall’s view was that different mental functions are in different parts of the brain. What we now know as localisation of function in the brain.

state Gall’s three principles

1. a persons faculties (intellectual abilities and personality traits) depend on the organisation of their brain.

2. the brain is made up of many ‘organs’, each of which is responsible for a different mental faculty, the larger that part of the brain would be.

3. the external form of the skull reflects the internal form of the brain, therefore analysis of the skull can be used to diagnose the faculties (mental or physical ablilties) of an individual.

define the term pseudoscience

consists of practices that claim both scientific and factual, but do not follow the scientific method. they are ‘fake’ sciences.

what is first brain experiments?

our understanding of the brain in the 1800s and 1900s came from a range of brain experiments inlcuding; brain ablation, lesioning, and split - brain research.

define the first brain experiment - brain ablation

the surgical removal, destruction, or cutting of a region of the brain tissue, then followed by the observation in the animals behaviour. The experiment provided evidence that different parts of the brain were responsible for different functions.

define the first brain experiment - brain lesioning

the practice of studying the effects of induced and / or existing damage to an area of the brain. Early brain lesioning studies involved the damage of brain tissue in animals, followed by the observation of changes in the animals behaviour.

This damage was either created through surgery or may have occurred naturally as a result of illness or injury (eg a stroke). The experiments provided evidence that different parts of the brain were responsible for different functions.

define the first brain experiment - split - brain research

Split - brain experiments were conducted by Roger Sperry and Michael Gazzaniga on patients who had a severed corpus callosum, and therefore their left and right cerebral hemispheres had been separated.

The experiment provided evidence of hemispheric specialisation, that is, the left and right hemispheres in the brain were responsible for different functions.

define the term cerebral hemispheres

the symmetrical halves of the cerebrum in the brain.

define the term corpus callosum

bundle of nerve fibres that connects the left and right brain hemispheres

define the term hemispheric specialisation

the difference in functioning between the left and right hemispheres of the brain when performing a specific behaviour or task.

define the term contralateral

relating to the opposite side of the body

define neuroimaging techniques

a range of techniques used to capture images of the brain’s structure, function, and activities. Neuroimaging techniques are the procedures and devices that are used to take scans of the brain. The techniques can be used for research purposes and / or to provide more information recording brain injury or damage, including location and severity.

list the two main neuroimaging techniques categories

structural and functional techniques

define the term structural technique

structural techniques provide information on what the brain looks like.

list the two structural neuroimaging techniques

computerised tomography ( CT scan ) and magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI scan )

define the term functional techniques

functional techniques provide information on brain activity.

list the two functional neuroimaging techniques

positron emission tomography ( PET scans ) and functional magnetic resonance imaging ( fMRI scans )

list the four types of neuroimaging techniques

computerised tomography ( CT scans ) magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI scans ) positron emission tomography ( PET scans ) and functional magnetic resonance imaging ( fMRI scans )

define computerised tomography

A neuroimaging technique that is non - invasive and structural that was developed in the 1970s. The technique involves taking continuous two - dimenisonal X - ray images of a person’s brain or body in order to provide both two - and three - dimensional images.

how does computerised tomography work?

computerised tomography involves a dye or contrast being ingested or injected into the blood stream of a patient. The patient then lies on a bed that slides into a donut - shaped scanner. A series of X - ray images are then taken as the tube spirals around the individual. The images produced are either two or three dimensional, and they provide information about the structures of the brain.

what is the primary uses of computerised tomography?

disease or disorder detection rather than for research.

what are the benefits of computerised tomography?

the neuroimaging technique enables the detection of haemorrhages, blood clots, cancer, and the loss of brain mass that can reflect disorders. Computerised tomography also doesn’t need to be used as frequently as other kinds of neuroimaging techniques because of how comprehensive CT scans are as they develop multiple images of the entire body or brain.

what are the limitations of computerised tomography scans?

They can be a somewhat intrusive process for the patient. As well as the images are limited to black and white and aren’t as detailed as images from other neuroimaging techniques. And lastly X - rays use electromagentic ironising radiation which, when used excessively, has the potential to have biological consequences, such as causing cancers.

define magentic resonance imaging

A structural non - invasive neuroimaging technique developed in the 1970s, that uses magnetic and radio fields to take two - and three - dimensional images of the brain.

how does magnetic resonance imaging work?

MRI involves a patient lying of a bed that slides into a chamber device made up of large magnets that are tube - shaped. Atoms in the water molecules in a person’s brain are realigned by the magnets, which produce signals that can be turned into images. The images produced are either two or three - dimensional, and they provide information about the structures of the brain.

what is the primary use for magnetic resonance imaging

disease or disorder detection.

what are the benefits of magentic resonance imaging?

they are less harmful to patients then CT scans because MRI devices use a magnetic field rather then X - rays. And they also produce more detailed, coloured images of the brain than the images produced by CT scans.

what are the limitations of magnetic resonance imaging?

due to relying on magnetic fields, an MRI cannot be used on a person with internal screws, pacemakers, or similar devices.

define postiron emission tomography

a neuroimaging technique that uses a scanning device to take coloured images of the brain, showing its functional activity by tracing the levels of a radioactive substance in the brain.

what is positron emission tomography?

positron emission tomography is a non - invasive functional neuroimaging technique which uses radioactive glucose and produces coloured images of the brain showing different levels of brain activity.

how does positron emission tomography work?

PET involves injecting a person with a radioactive glucose solution, which enters the brain via the bloodstream. The patient then lies on a bed that slides into a chamber and is asked to perform certain tasks. The PET scanner takes a series of images by registering the emissions released by the radioactive substance. The more active a region it is, the more glucose it will use resulting in higher emissions.

define functional magnetic resonance imaging

a neuroimaging technique that uses magnetic and radio fields to take tow and three - dimensional images of the brain and record its activity levels.

what is functional magnetic resonsnace imaging?

functional magnectic resonsance imaging is a non - invasive functional neuroimaging technique introduced in the 1990s. It traces oxygen levels in the brain and produces high - quality coloured images showing different levels of brain activity.

how does functional magnetic resonance imaging work?

fMRI was developed using MRI technology. Similarly, fMRI uses magnetic and radio fields. The mail difference is the fMRI is based on the premise that the more active a region is, the more oxygen it will use. Thus, it measures blood flow to an area of the brain during a physical or intellectual task.

define the brain

A complex organ contained within the skull that coordinates mental processes and behaviour, and regulates bodily activity. Enabling you to think, feel, move, speak, and perceive.

list the three mian regions of the human brain

the hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain

define the hindbrain

The hindbrain is a region at the base of the brain, located around and including some of the brain stem. It is located at the base of our brain near the spinal cord.

what is the hindbrain responsible for?

The hindbrain is responsible for coordinating basic survival functions, this entails; coordination of movement, breathing rate, heart rate, digestion, and regulation of the sleep - wake cycle.

define the midbrain

A region at the centre of the brain, between the hindbrain and the forebrain, and is part of the brainstem. It’s sometimes referred to as the relay station of the brain because every sensory motor message that is transmitted between the brain and spinal cord passes through it.

What is the midbrain responsible for?

the midbrain is responsible for relaying neural information between the hindbrain and the forebrain, and between structurally higher brain areas and the spinal cord. Things like; processing sensory information, such as auditory, visual, and tactile information. Coordinating motor movement relating to sensory stimuli, such as eye movements. And regulating sleep and physiological arousal and alertness.

define the forebrain

The forebrain is a large and prominent brain region that is located at the top and front of the brain.

What is the forebrain responsible for?

The forebrain plays an important role in sophisicated mental processes, including congition, perception, learning, language, and memory. It is responsible for the integration and coordination of information that enables us to perform complex functions, including, receiving and processing sensory information, and initiating voluntary motor movement. This brain region is highly complete and contains extremely intricate neuronal networks, which enables these - higher - order functions to occour.

list the structures in the hindbrain

cerebellum, medulla, and the pons

list the structures in the midbrain

reticular

list the structure in the forebrain

there cerebrum, thalamus, and hypothalamus.

define the cerebral cortex

The cerebral cortex is the outer layer of the cerebrum that covers the brain. It has an important role in behaviour and mental processes. Without your cerebral cortex you would be unable to think, speak, sense, or move. The cerebral cortex is very thin as well 2mm thick.

what is the cerebral cortex responsible for?

it is involved in the initiation of voluntary motor movements and the processing of sensory information, it is involved in; language, sensation, perception, problem-solving, judgement, regulation of emotions. Different regions ( lobes ) of the cerebral cortex are responsible for these various functions.

list the functional types and areas the cerebral cortex is composed of

motor areas, sensory areas, and association areas

define motor areas

Motor areas are regions of the cerebral cortex that have functions related to initiating and executing motor movements. Motor areas are made up of motor neurons.

define sensory areas

sensory areas are regions of the cerebral cortex that have functions related to receiving and processing information from the five senses. Sensory areas are made up of sensory neurons.

define assosiaction areas

association areas are regions of the cerebral cortex that integrate information from both motor areas and sensory areas to execute complex mental processes.

Define brain lobes

the cerebral cortex can be divided into four distinct regions, these are called lobes and each lobe plays a different role.

list the four brain lobes

the frontal lobe, the parietal lobe, the occipital lobe, the temporal lobe.

define the frontal lobe

The largest and front-most lobe of the cerebral cortex that is composed of motor and association areas. It’s located in the upper forward half of each hemisphere.

define frontal lobe association area and functions

The association area of the frontal lobe has several functions, these include: planning, judgement, problem - solving, aspects of personality, regulation of emotions, and production of fluent and articulate speech (this is in broca’s area - left hemisphere).

define Frontal lobe - the primary motor cortex (PMC)

The primary motor cortex (PMC) is located at the rear of each frontal lobe. It is responsible for the movement of the skeletal muscles of the body. Areas at the top of the body are represented at the lower parts of the PMC and vice versa. Areas of the body that are capable of more precise movement occupy a larger proportion of the PMC.

define the contralateral organisation of the frontal lobe

The left PMC is resposible for the movement of the right-hand side of the body, and the right PMC is responsible for the movement on the left-hand side of the body.

define parietal lobe

the lobe of the cerebral cortex, located behind the frontal lobe, and is composed of sensory and association areas. Occupies the upper back half of each hemisphere, behind the frontal lobe.

define parietal lobe - association area and functions

the association area of the parietal lobe has several functions, including: sensing the postion of our body in space, and spatial reasoning (determining where an object is located in space), and perception of 3D objects.

define Parietal lobe - the primary somatosensory cortex (PSC)

The primary somatosensory cortex is situated at the front of each parietal lobe. It recieves and processes sensations such as touch, pressure, temperature, and pain from the body. Both the primary motor cortex and primary somatosensory represent the body in the same way. Areas at the top of the body represented at the lower parts of the primary cortex, and vise versa. The biggest difference is that areas of the body that are more sensitive occupy a larger proportion of the PSC.

define contralateral organisation of parietal lobe

The left PSC is responsible for receiving and processing information from the right-hand side of the body. The right PSC is responsible for receiving and processing information from the left-had side of the body.

define the occipital lobe

The rearmost lobe of the cerebral cortex, located behind the parietal lobe, and is composed of sensory and association areas.

define the occipital lobe - association areas

The association area of the occipital lobe is entirely concerned with visual perception. After the primary visual cortex receives and processes visual information, the association areas organise these into more complex forms to enable interpretation (perception).

define the occipital lobe - the primary visual cortex (PVC)

The primary visual cortex receives and processes visual information. Information from the left visual field is processed in the right occipital lobe. Information from the right visual field is processed in the left occipital lobe. Information from the centre of the visual field is processed in both occipital lobes.

define temporal lobe

The lowest lobe of the cerebral cortex, located beneath the parietal lobe, and is composed of sensory and association areas. It’s also located on the side of the brain, below the frontal and parietal lobes.

Define the temporal lobe - association areas

The association area of the temporal lobe has an important role in memory, in particular: object and facial recognition, appropriate emotional responses, and memories of facts and personal experiences. The left temporal lobe contains Wernicke’s area, responsible for language comprehension.

define the temporal lobe - the primary auditory cortex (PAC)

The primary auditory cortex receives and processes auditory information. Different parts of the primary auditory cortex of the temporal lobe process different features of sound. Verbal words are processed in the left hemisphere, and non - verbal music is processed in the right hemisphere.

define neuroplasticity

The abilityof the brain to change in response to experience or enviromental stimulation

list the two types of plasticity

developmental and adaptive plasticity

define developmental plasticity

changes in the brain that occur in response to ageing and maturation

define adaptive plasticity

the brains ability to restore adequate neural functioning over time after sustaining injury

what type of plasticity is it when the brain changes in response to experience

developmental plasticity is the most prominent during infancy and adolesence and then decreases with age

define neuron

neuron is a nerve cell that receives and transmits neural information

define dendrites (inside the neuron)

receive neural messages

define myelin (part of the neuron)

insulates the neuron and prevents disturbance from other neurons

define axon terminals (part of the neuron)

sends neuronal messages to the next neuron

define synapses

the region that includes the axon terminals of the presynaptic neuron, the synaptic gap, and the dendrites of the post synaptic neuron.

list the three key processes that underpin developmental plasticity

synaptogenesis, synaptic pruning, myelination

define synaptogenesis

the formation of synapse between neurons as axon terminals and dendrites grow

define synaptic pruning

the elimination of underused synapses

define myelination

the formation and development of myelin around the axon of a neuron

what is the brain changes in response to brain trauma

adaptive plasticity of the brain plays a key role in recovery from brain trauma. Adaptive plasticity is the brains ability to restore adequate neural functioning overtime after sustaining injury. Adaptive plasticity can occur throughout the whole lifespan, however it is more efficient in younger people due to the higher levels of developmental plasticity.

define brain trauma

brain trauma is damage to the brain that is caused by an external force, eg falling and hitting your head or being knocked in the head during a sporting game.

list the two key processes of adaptive plasticity

sporuting and rerouting

define sprouting

sprouting is the ability of a neuron to develop new branches on the dendrites or axons

define rerouting

rerouting is a neurons ability to form a new connection with another undamaged neuron.

how can we maintain brain functioning?

research has shown there are a number of ways to maximise and maintain brain function as we age.

list the ways to maintain brain functioning

mental stimulation, diet, physical activity, social support.

define acquired brain injury (ABI)

if an individual experiences a brain injury, after birth, they are said to have an acquired brain injury.

list the two types of (ABI)

traumatic and non - traumatic

define traumatic ABI and give some examples

damage to the brain caused by external force. for example falls, assults, vehicle accidents, sports injuries