NPB 102 mid 2

Behavioral genetics

study of how

• genes and evenrioment interact to shape —> behavior

Heritability

Heritability

If aggression has high heritability:

👉 differences between people are mostly due to genes
NOT:
👉 “this person is aggressive because of genes only”

phenotype behavior

individuals observed beaver

genotype

genetic blue print you have

• ( DNA, alleles)

Behavioral variation —> where does it come from

👉 Why individuals behave differently

Caused by:

• genes

• environment

• interaction of both

behavior ( phenotype). = G + E+ GEI

G= genotype

E=envrimetn ( what there eposes too).

GeI= Gene x enrioment interaction ( how genes responds to ebnrioemtn ).

Genetic basis of behavior — rodents why

rodents s

• earliest evidence of genetic basis of hbeahor

• BCCC —→ certain strains = consistent diffenceds in behavior

  • even though environment sales

  • SOOOO —→ has to be differences in genotype

Why useful:

If:

• environment = same

• behavior = different

👉 difference must be genetic

What are instincts

Insticnts

• performed same wya every time

• fully expeeressd the 1st time occur

• appear even if indium raise in isolation n

• separated into two key type

  • reflexed

  • Fixed action patterns

• Instinct

👉 Behavior you are born with

No learning needed

reflexes def

innovoaltuaty responses to a stimuli

( aka Blinkinging , flinchinG(.

Why this matters:

• You didn’t learn it

• You don’t think about it

• Babies can do it

👉 Conclusion:
This behavior is built into your nervous system
→ which is built by genes

They are evidence.

They show:
👉 behavior can exist without learning
👉 therefore it must come from genetic programming

Fixed action patterns ( FAPS)

Fap

• highly stereotyped behavior

• once triggers —→ run to completion

• little to no vairoatio across indivusal s

EX": goose rolls egg back into nest —>sa we Rome eggg mid action it will still do the same thing after

Why this is HUGE:

This shows behavior is:

• pre-programmed

• not flexible

• not learned

👉 That’s basically like saying:
“this behavior is coded in DNA”.

They are evidence.

They show:
👉 behavior can exist without learning
👉 therefore it must come from genetic programming

instinct —→ ( innate bevhros evidences ).

Instinct ( Innate behaviors)

So how does this connect to genetics?

Here’s the logic chain your professor expects:

1. Some behaviors appear without learning

2. These behaviors are consistent across individuals

3. Therefore, they must be encoded biologically

4. Biology = genes
   👉 Therefore: genes influence behavior

Genome

Genome

• all dna in a orgais. ( genes / genit material

• humans = 3.2 billion base pairs

• when unzipped base pairs reveals )

Base pairs

unit of DNA

• nucleotides bonds in Pairs ( across the 2 strands

• A= t

• C= G

• order of pairs - genetic codes.

genes

Genes:

• sections of Dna that code for something

Since Genomes are huge → how do we study them?

answer = genotyping

Genotyping

Definition:

• Identifying differences in DNA sequence ( looking at genetic makeup)

👉 Basically:
“Reading someone’s genetic blueprint”

PCR

PCR ( polymerase - chain reaction)

• one method of genotyping

• amplifies DNA = makes easier to detect genes of interest

• aka ( makes copies )

• how —>

  • special machine heat and cool DNA in cycles

  • with each cycle = doubling number of dna copies

WHNE used ?

• when you have tiny DNA samples

• so you then make copies

• allow to run different test and run them through this dna sample ( without ruin original asamle)

How does each cycle change DNA amount

How does each cycle change DNA amount

It doubles every cycle

So after many cycles:
👉 you go from tiny → millions of copies

Gel electorpheiireis.

Gel

• one method of genotyping

• seated dna by sizes

• dna fragments —> pushed through gel electric field

• small fragments = move faster

• large = move slowr

---

good to camper dna size = aka identify ing specific genetic measurers

Why does DNA move in an electric field?

Why does DNA move in an electric field?

DNA is negatively charged

So:
👉 it gets pulled toward the positive sid

What can scientists infer from band patterns?

👉 If two samples have:

• same bands → similar DNA

• different bands → different DNA

DNA sequencing

DNA sequencing

• one method of genotyping

• reads order of base pairs in DNA —> reveals hgentic info ( aTCG)

• use when you want *** ACTUAL GENETIC CODE

What can sequencing answer that PCR/gel can’t?

Exact mutations
👉 Exact differences
👉 Full genetic information

SNP

SNP ( single nuclide base difference ).

• method of genotyping

• looks for tiny dirnrece in genetic code btw individuals

• small diffenc —> help identify traits / succepticvety to disease

Ex: one person = an and. another has = g

tiny change —→ can effect traits

---

like trying tot tell apart identical twin by a mole on their hand

thermocylc,er

machine that runs pCR

Mrna

messengfer copy of RNA

Real time PCR - ( qpCR)

PCR related time or quantitate ( QPCR)

• method of genotyping

• lets sicneitst measure amount of dna preent in REAL time ( aka dna that is active)

• Which genes are active TRANSCRIBING —> giving us gene expression

**looking at mRNA —> bc thats indicator of DNA being active

Condors

🐦 SLIDES 29–31: Real example (Condors)

• Population almost extinct → inbreeding risk ( from th programs)

• Genotyped more than 900 captive and wild condors —→ over 30 years to monitor genetic diversity

• how and what Used:

  • PCR- to genotype and ample micorsatelities (at 21 differt loci in gene)

  • Microsatellites= repeptivie DNA sequences ( frequently mutate thus useful for detecting variation in alleles )

  • PCR product place in —> Gel electrophoresis

👉 Found:

• Some birds reproduced asexually (crazy) *PArtheogensiss.

microsatlitles

reep;tive dia sequences

highly polymorphic = the ability to exist in multiple forms, shape

thus key for losing at variotaio n

ex: ACACACACACA

Paetheonegoeniss.

candors have this

• eggs not fertilized —→ offspring receive copies of only mothers allees

How do we figure put which genes are linked to a Trait

. Statistical. mehtos

• GWAS ( genie wide association studies 0

• QTL ( quantitative trait loci mapping)

****approaches for IDENTIFYINg genetic factors —.ASSOC with trait

Moleculemact method

• gene edition

  • knouclt out

  • crisps

**Tech direly alter genetic seqiucnes to study —> FUNCTOM of genes

GWAS

GWAs:

** compares many to find genetic patterns ( DNA regions) that are linked to a —-.TRAITc

what it does:

• Compare MANY unrelated individuals

• With trait vs without

👉 Finds: associated regions ( corre,ation )

—

GWAS

👉 Compare DNA across MANY individuals

Goal:
👉 find variants linked to trait

QTLMappuing

QTL

What it does:

• Uses related individuals (families)

to Tracks:

• Inherited markers( passed down from parents)

• links variation in traits —> to specific regions of genome

👉 Finds:
specific genomic regions - that are linked to the trait ( aka the neighborhood the trait lives in )

** if region consistory appears in indicual with trait = it is a QTL

**more controlled —> genetic controlled mroe similar — less noise eaisrt to identify

Quantitive trait

trait with range

• ex : hheight, anxiety

genetic markers

DNA spots used as landmarks

knockout mehtod

Knockout:

• turn gene off

• observe changes —> infers function

CRISPR - CAS 9

CRISPR _ cas 9

• cas9 = protein evolved that cuts out DNA

• targeted SUPER preceded - dna editing

• delet/ insert/ or CHNAGE

• precise and felcixble

**observe changes = causation

Silver Fox expiemrnt

setup

• breed foxes for tameness

• and every geenatoon after ( bred only the tames 10% )

Results:

Behavioral changes:

• Friendly

• Less stress

• social beahvrio ( wagging, licking , human interaction)

Physical changes:

• Floppy ears

• Coat color

• Face shape

👉 Called:

**👉 Shows:
behavior genes affect other traits too

WHY ? —> DOMESYTICATION SNDORM

Domestication syndrome

Set of traits seen in domesticated animals

behavioral = tameness , reduced stress

physical: ears , tails , coat , skull shape

physiological: homoness, brain development

Orthologous chromosomes

Similar chromosomes across species

Des ire the Compassion of TAME vs AGressie foxes

compare the tame line and the aggressive line: ( wanted to test if doemsticaito left a gehenti c signature)

Hypothesis :

• domesitactio —→ consistent genetic changes

• aka selecting for tameness will lead to consistent genetic changes (domestication syndrome)

PREDICTION

• SOOO—>

  • tame foxes will share certain DNA regions

  • agreewive foxes will have diffnet regions

  • AMD these direness should overlap when compares to the regions between dogs vs wolves )

What does “consistent change” mean?

nstead:
👉 the SAME regions of DNA keep showing up

🧬 How do they test that

“Is there a region of DNA that is ALWAYS inherited with the trait?

• collected blood samples

• usd PCR to amplify

• QTL —> link DNA regions to behavior

RESULT:

• Found region on chromosome VVU12

• Same region differs in:

  • tame vs aggressive foxes

  • dogs vs wolves

**domesitacion = SHARED GENTIC BASIS

CHNAGE Is not random = DOemsitacitaon is constituent in difrnet separate domestication process

• same genetic pathways eve among didn’t species.

** basally does doesmisito have visible simple rhcages in these differ animals is it CONSTIETN

Why do individuals respond differently to the same stimulus (like rollercoasters)

👉 Because of:

• genes (some people are naturally more anxious/thrill-seeking)

• environment (past experiences, upbringing)

• interaction of both

Example:

Two people on a rollercoaster:

• Person A → loves it

• Person B → terrified

👉 Same stimulus, different response
➡ That’s behavioral variation

❓ How does behavioral genetics differ from just studying behavior?

👉 Regular behavior study:

• What do animals do?

👉 Behavioral genetics:

• Why do they behave that way genetically?

MPLE:

Behavior = observation
Behavioral genetics = DNA explanation

What questions does behavioral genetics aim to answer?

Examples:

• Is this behavior inherited?

• Which genes influence this behavior?

• How much is genetics vs environment?

• How do genes affect brain/behavior?

Why is heritability important for evolution?

Why is heritability important for evolution?

👉 Heritability = how much of a trait is genetic

Why it matters:

If a trait is genetic, it can be:
👉 passed down
👉 selected fo

Example:

If “tameness” is heritable:

• tame animals reproduce more
  👉 population becomes more tame over time

➡ evolutio

Can a trait have high heritability but still be influenced by environment?

YES (this is important)

Example: Height

• strongly genetic
  BUT

• nutrition matters

Meaning:

👉 Genes set the range
👉 Environment affects the outcom

Why is behavior considered a phenotype?

Because it is:

• observable

• measurable

Examples:

• aggression

• anxiety

• friendliness

👉 You can SEE behavior → it’s a phenotype

Can two people with the same genotype behave differently?

Yes

\

Identical twins:

• same DNA
  BUT

• different environments

👉 different personalities/behaviors

Identical twins:

• same DNA
  BUT

• different environments

👉 different personalities/behaviors

👉 Because environment is controlled

---

Meaning:

If:

• same environment

• different behavior

👉 difference must be genetic

Why does the goose example show genetic control

👉 Goose sees egg → rolls it back

Even if egg disappears:
👉 it keeps going

Meaning:

• not thinking

• not learning

• not flexible

👉 hardwired behavior → genetic

“How do bioinformatics tools help researchers find behaviorally relevant mutations?”

Answer: they make it possible to search enormous genomes and filter millions of variants.

What is inside genomes

• about 2% = genes

• 2–5% = DNA binding/regulatory signals

• 90%+ = other stuff, unknown function, spacers, retroviruses

**most DNA does not direly male proteins

** but non coding DNA still matters

Why is genome size a challenge?

Why is genome size a challenge?

If genomes are huge, how do we find the few DNA differences that actually matter?

How do bioinformatics tools help researchers find behaviorally relevant mutations?

They help by filtering enormous data down to a smaller list of possible important variants.

“How might non-coding DNA influence animal behavior?”

Answer

• : non-coding DNA can regulate genes.

• It can affect when, where, or how much a gene is turned on.

• If that gene affects brain development, hormones, sensory systems, or neural circuits,—→ then non-coding DNA can influence behavior.

EX:

The protein-coding part is the lamp itself.
The non-coding control region is the light switch.

A behavior could change if:

• the lamp is broken

• OR the switch turns it on too much

• OR the switch turns it on in the wrong place

• OR the switch turns it on at the wrong time

How do genes “make things happen”?

**genes don’t act alone

• behavior like aggression, migration, social boding , or volicaiton —> does not come from one gene

• involves brain development, hormones, sensory input, encvirment, AND gene regulation

Example: aggression is not just “the aggression gene.”

Aggression could involve:

• brain wiring

• stress hormones

• fear response

• past experience

• sensory perception

• immune system

• metabolism

So when the study guide says behavioral traits are often polygenic, it means:

Many genes contribute to the behavior.

**BEHAVIOR = Polygenic

Why is it important to consider environment when studying behavior?

Because behavior can change depending on

• upbringing,

• social conditions,

• stress,

• diet,

• learning, and

• surroundings

Why finding the important DNA change is hard

Because if you compare two animals, you may find thousands or millions of DNA differences.

Most of those differences do nothing obvious.

So the problem is not just finding differences.

The problem is figuring out:

Which difference actually matters for the trait?

Comparative genomics means

Comparing genomes across individuals, breeds, or species to see which DNA differences line up with traits.

For behavior, comparative genomics can help explain how behaviors evolved.

EX: If dogs are generally more tame than wolves, scientists can compare dog and wolf genomes to look for DNA regions involved in domestication.

Manhattan plots

The x-axis is different places in the genome.
The y-axis is how strongly each DNA difference is associated with the trait.

Tall peak = “look here, this genome region may matter.”

GWAS and Manhattan plots help identify statistical associations between genetic variants and traits.

For behavior, the same thing could be done:

If you have animals with a behavior and animals without it, you scan the genome and look for peaks.

Example:

Let’s say we look at ONE DNA variant:

Case 1:

• 90% of screw-tail dogs have it

• 5% of normal dogs have it

👉 That’s HIGH association

---

Case 2:

• 50% of both groups have it

👉 That’s NO association

“This DNA difference shows up a lot in dogs WITH the trait and not much in dogs WITHOUT it”

how does Recombination affects how traits and behaviors are inherited across generations.

Because recombination shuffles DNA blocks, scientists can use inherited blocks to locate trait-related regions.

DNA gets inherited in chunks.

So if a mutation causes a trait, nearby DNA pieces often travel with it.

Imagine a suspicious person is always seen with the same group of friends. Even if you do not know which person committed the crime, the group tells you where to look.

In genetics:

The “friends” are nearby DNA markers.
The “criminal” is the actual causal mutation

What kind of experimental designs strengthen conclusions about gene-behavior links?

A strong design compares many animals and looks for DNA regions consistently shared with the behavior.

Plain version:

Animals with the trait share a stretch of DNA.
The true cause is probably somewhere in that stretch.

MATHC case/control comparison

ACases = animals with the trait
B-Controls = animals without the trait

X= #cases individuals without variant

Y= #control cindivals without variant

(A/B)/ (X/Y)

f a DNA variant is common in cases and rare in controls, it may be associated with the trait.

xample:

Imagine 90 out of 100 aggressive animals have variant A.
Only 5 out of 100 calm animals have variant A.

That variant is suspicious

**DO MATH her

Screw tail expiemnt - finding variants.

What the researchers did

• They used whole genome sequence data from 100 dogs from 21 breeds.

• They compared dogs with screw tails to dogs without screw tails

AKA-What DNA differences do the screw-tail dogs share that the normal-tail dogs do not?

• resulted in 20 million variants (SNP) /INDEL

• For EACH variant, ask: who has it?

  For every single variant, the software asks:

  Do the screw-tail dogs have this variant?

  Do the normal-tail dogs lack this variant?

Variant	Screw-tail dogs	Normal-tail dogs
Variant A	mostly yes	mostly no

• the association score —> Manhattan plot ( is tis mostly found in dogs with or without ahtne plote0.

What aware the result form the screw tail excitement

Result

• The Manhattan plot showed a big signal on chromosome 5 (dog)

That means:

“Something in this area is related to screw tail”

• they ZOOME IN —> found DVL2 gene

  • inside - Frame shift Mutation ( delection of 1 base)

Plain version:

They found a suspicious DNA area, then inside it they found a gene with a mutation that could break the protein.

For EACH variant, they ask:

“Do dogs with screw tail have this more often than dogs without?”

fremshift mutation why bad

That missing base shifted how the DNA message was read and produced a shortened protein.

Imagine reading this sentence in groups of three letters:

THE CAT ATE THE RAT

Now delete one letter near the start:

THC ATA TET HER AT

Everything after the deletion gets messed up.

That is a frameshift.

If this happens in a gene, the protein may not work correctly.

How might a frameshift mutation in a developmental gene impact behavior?

f a gene helps build the nervous system, brain, sensory organs, or hormone pathways, breaking the protein could change behavior.

In the dog example, the obvious effect is body/tail shape, but if a similar mutation affected brain development, —→behavior could change to-

DLV1 and Human - significance

Example from your lecture🐶 Dogs:

• Gene: DVL2

• Mutation → screw tail / body shape changes

Humans:

• Similar gene

• Mutation → Robinow syndrome (affects body development)

💥 WHY this matters

It shows:

This gene is involved in body development in BOTH species

So the gene is not random—it has a real biological function

---

Example analogy:

Dog gene:

“build tail structure this way”

Human gene:

“build spine/body structure this way”

👉 Not identical
👉 But same type of instruction system

How can comparative genomics help us understand traits?

By comparing similar genes across species, scientists can identify genes that play important roles in development or behavior, since similar genes often perform similar functions.

What experimental designs strengthen conclusions about gene-behavior links?

What experimental designs strengthen conclusions about gene-behavior links?

Strong conclusions need more than a statistical association. You want:

• clear phenotype

• many individuals

• good controls

• biological mechanism

• functional evidence

• cross-species support if possible

Ethics — should we fix it? when identify a harmful trait -

For screw tail, the ethical question is about dog welfare.

If a trait causes medical problems, maybe we should stop breeding for it.

But if a gene affects multiple traits, changing it might have unexpected effects.

hat ethical issues arise when editing genes that influence animal behavior

ehavior-related editing is even more ethically complicated.

Example:

If we edit an animal to be less aggressive:

• Is that improving welfare?

• Or just making it easier for humans to control?

• Could it affect fear, social bonding, survival, or stress?

• Are we changing the animal for its benefit or ours?

Dire wolf

The claim was that scientists used ancient DNA and gene editing to create dire-wolf-like animals from gray wolves.

This matters because it asks:

If you edit DNA to create certain traits, have you recreated the animal?

The lecture is skeptical.

started with

• sequencing

• compare genomes

• identify diffnece

• decide which diffenced affect traits

In what ways can de-extinction fail to recreate behavioral traits?

Because even if you edit some genes for appearance, behavior depends on much more:

• many genes

• development

• parents

• learning

• environment

• social group

• prey/predator ecology

• brain wiring

• full genome context

A gray wolf edited to look dire-wolf-like may not behave like a true dire wolf.

**Changing some visible traits is not the same as recreating a whole animal or its behavior.

What are challenges of studying polygenic behavioral traits?

Challenges:

• many genes each have tiny effects

• different genes interact

• environment changes behavior

• behavior is hard to measure

• huge sample sizes are needed

• associations may be weak

Communication

a dpecialized. signal produced by one individual —→which influences bevhior of another

signal

signal

• evolved trait which actively sends info and affects receivers

• ex: mating , dance ,alarm calls, pheromones

signaler

individual which produces the signal

receiver

idnivial detecting and responding to signs

Cue

passive info not evolved for communication but still —> useful to others

• ex Vultures cueing scanvehenrgss to carcasses : Co2 attracts mosquitos

ex

Signal / cue / mniethier —> hawk circling causing mouse to hide

cue

• hawk isn’t telling mouse —> mouse just reads the room passive info.

signal cue / neither —→ male frog mating call but it fails

signal

• even if it fail it sis still community

signal, cue , neither —> yellow jacket color deters predators

signal

• visual warning —> purposefully shaped by natal selection

• influences bevahor of others —> stops pretors from eating it

How are signals perceived

perceived through 0-=——> sensory systems ( influence by enevrionebt stimulus)

• sensory receptors —> nere endings that respond to internal/ external environmental stimulues

• transmit info along axons to CNS —> response then generated for the stimuli

chemo receptors

chemoreceptors

• detect chemical stimuli ( substances are released into environment —> detected by odor binding protein sin sensory structure)

• how detected

  • olfaction : senses of emmet

  • gustation : detection of dissolved chemicals

• sniffers / tasters

volatile chem signals

• VOLATILE chem signal : signals transmitted really through water or air

pheromones

pheromosne s

• volatiles ( gaseous) compounds

• speciesrf specific

• affect beavhiro of another individual fo the same species

  • can indicate -sex, food trails, predation ,etc

insects - pheromoens

insects

• destroy 1/3 of food production

• insectedcidt used widepsread

  • not species specific - can harm other psepcises

  • speed up evolution of resiticance by insects

• Many insect use pheromones to find potential mates

SO hwo does pheromones and food production relate

• release small amounts of sex pheromone onto orchid ( we disrupt mating)

• aka confusion to males —> where alre females that im detecting

• results = reduced predprcuotions And REDCUCED damage of CROPS

Waggle dance

Waggle dance = bee to be dance

• scout bee performs waggle dance —> when found foos to brink other workers to get food.

describe tje waggel avance and the key details

waggle = conveys three key details

• direction of waggle = direction of food source

• duration of waggle = distance to food source

• number of repetition = quality/ abundance of food

Dr.Nieh - what did they discover

• social learning matters —> bees with ecxoencied teachers danced better

• direction improves with teaching —> taught bees mores actuality signal food direction

• distance is. trickier ——→ bees without teachers overshot the distance and diditn correct cover time

Overalll**

— TEAHERS = cricital for learning full dance accuracy

i*******mplications bees ma have a = CRITICAL LEARNING PERIODS and even ANIMAL CULTURE

Alarm calls

alarm calls

• unique vocializaiton = produce by social animals

• does when predator is nearby

ex: VERVERT monkerys - gvie specifc alarmscalls. —> based off predators ( trigger dijrnt survucal strategies)

is the alarm call — language ( monkeys0

does the alarm call descrive threat ( leopard ) OR just trigger reaction ( climb tree)

• if describe threat = true symbolic communicate ( language)

• if trigger bevahro = simple stimulus response

auditory mechanism

from = follows function ( all tuned for signals they need / aka range of frequency differs)

auditory receptors = specialized nerve cells that detect auditory signals

urban noise reshapes bird songs - GREAT TITS

observation

• urban great tits sing with

  • higher min frequency

  • shorter , fstsrr songs ( compare to forest birds)

WHy

• traffic noise —> masks low frequency sounds

• birds adapt song to be heard over city noise

---

human change enviormnt —→ animals have to change hwo to communicate to survive

sparrow songs - pre covid

white crowned sparrow

• urban areas males sing with

  • high min frequency

  • narrow frequency range

  • slower trill rates

• **songs less effective at defending territories

ovid

• ambient noise dropped

• males sng more queitly —> heard twice as far

FWB= wide of signal

trill rate = how fast

photoreceptors

photo receptors

• specialize neurons = sensitive to light

• visual receptroes

• two main types

  • rods = peripheral vision and low light

  • cones = color

*Variation within species = COLOR

humans have only 3 cones but some ,ay have three.

electrocrepctios

electro receptors

• speculate sensor cells - detect electrical currents

• most animals that have this - aquatic ( water conducts electric better than air)

  • most fish

  • some dolphin / platypuses

• land exceptions -

  • echidnas = detect electric fields of prey with sensors ons outs

  • bees = sensory hairs detect e fields of flowers

used for

• identifying species

• finding mates

• signaling motivational status

• sensing envirmet conditions

electron organ discharge

sppecilaise electon organ signals —> for sensing and communicate

• two groys pf fishes - elephatfish and Kingfish

  • evolved organs that produce electric

• some species generate strong EOD - to stun

• others produces weak EOD = detect prey , communicate

Can electric signals predict a fight

background

• many species —> use signals to Asse search otehrs RHP ( resource holding potential = likely hod of winning a fight)

Hypotheiss

• amaxozonina kiniffeish use EOD freuncyc to asses RHP

Preciditosn:

• fish with higher frequency EOD = more succfpel at controlling access to a refuge

Method:

• caught wild fish in Peru —. trandsfred to tail and recorded EOF frqucny

• Paris of fish were then inrotudec simaltouslu to tank

• interaction analyze

• winner spent most time in refuge - initiated most headbutts

• length of each fish recorded to make it fair

results:

1. relationship btw fish size and EOD frequencies

• positively correlated = bigger fish make higher frequencies EOD

2. controlling access to refuge

• winners had higher EOD frequencies

** but heres the next quesiton did they win bc of EOD or bc they big

Testing Fish EOD - Ases RHP

We want to test if they actually use EOD to measure RHP

method:

• researchers tested if fish respond to EOD frequency indeptneit of body size

• each fish exposes to recording of EOD signal ( didifnrt frequency)

  • order of rrequcny randomized

Reaserhcers analyze

• number of headbutt = towards electrodes

• time = spent near electors ( elector taxis).

Results

• frequency of EOD recording = neg correlated with amount of time spent in playback area and number of headbutts

• aka hella high oooh omg ima run away.

**Knifesuh use EOD frequency to asses RHP