Confrontation and cooperation 1963-1972

In what way was 1964 a turning point for Vietnam?

It represents massive escalation in the war in Vietnam, mostly due to the Gulf of Tonkin incident

What was the Pleiku incident on 7th Feb 1965?

The Vietcong attack a US airbase causing several deaths. Used alongside the Gulf of Tonkin to justify escalation.

Americanisation

Increasing US responsibility and involvement in Vietnam primarily through increasing military operations.

Why was LBJ motivated to escalate the war in Vietnam?

-he believed it was the best way to contain communism

-would assert US global credibility

-fear of domino theory

-personal credibility, doesn't want to seem soft on communism.

In John McNaughton (security advisor's) eyes, why had escalation in Vietnam occurred?

70% to prevent humiliation

20% to contain China

10% to help Vietnam

What were the two strands of Johnson's escalation?

-bombing campaign (rolling thunder)

-increased troops on the ground

How many troops were in Vietnam at the beginning of 1965 compared to the end?

3500 troops in March compared to 185,000 by the end of 1965

What percentage of Search and Destroy missions were actually effective?

1%

When was the Battle of Ia Drang Valley?

November 1965

Why was the Battle of Ia Drang Valley significant?

It was the first face to face battle of the war and it was a military victory for the USA

How did the Battle of Ia Drang Valley influence the VC?

It influenced them to adopt more guerilla tactics and avoid face to face fighting. (influenced by leader General Giap)

Why did both Bejing and Moscow urge North Vietnam to be cautious?

Neither wanted to damage further their weak relationship with the USA.

What was the credibility gap in Vietnam?

The difference between what Johnson said and what actually happened. This widened throughout the war as Johnson was never honest about the reality of events in Vietnam.

Why did Johnson lie about Vietnam?

He knew the war would be unpopular and he wanted to protect his pursuit of the Great Society at home, thus covered it up

Why was "real escalation" impossible for Johnson?

-they did not want to provoke the Soviets and Chinese

-attacking "little" North Vietnam would look bad internationally

Why was LBJ weak domestically by 1968?

-he had concealed the true cost of war from the public

-the draft was unpopular (racist)

-MLK led huge anti war marches in 1967

-Robert McNamara resigned as defence secretary in 1967

In what way was Tet a defeat for the US?

Psychologically, it confirmed them military stalemate and convinced the American population that the US was not winning the war

How did the media behave after Tet?

They turned against the war and Walter Cronkite in particular prophesied that the conflict would end in a stalemate

How did Johnson's policies change after Tet?

He gave orders to restrict bombing and military escalation of troops and announced he would step down from a re-election campaign. A shift towards Vietnamisation as he wanted to end the war

What did Johnson's approval ratings fall to in March 1968?

36%

How did Congress change after Tet?

They began to try and regain some control over foreign policy that they had relinquished in the Gulf of Tonkin resolution

Give an example of anti-war protests that occurred after Tet?

Protests at Columbia university in April 1968

When does LBJ withdraw from the presidential race?

March 1968

Why do both China and the USSR want to support North Vietnam?

They want to establish their position as leader of the communist world

By 1968, how much of all aid going to North Vietnam was from the USSR?

half of all aid

What was OPLAN 34A?

A strategy based upon progressively increasing the pressure upon North Vietnam using covert action

When was OPLAN 34A agreed to?

January 1964

Are the US experienced imperialists in Vietnam?

No, they are not well-accustomed to playing the role of global policeman. They do not understand the political realities of Vietnam and so misjudge the political situation.

How did Dulles describe Diem?

As a "miracle man"

What was the religious makeup of South Vietnam?

10% Catholic

90% Buddhists

Who was Le Duan?

A North Vietnamese politician who wanted to escalate reunification

What motivated JFK in Vietnam?

His terrible first year in office, he wanted to seem tougher on communism and was concerned about the November 1962 midterms.

What was the Malayan Emergency and what was its significance?

From 1948-62 the British fought against Malayan communists and won. JFK based much of his strategy in Vietnam off of the UK's strategy in Malaya.

When was the Battle of Ap Bac?

January 1963

What were the casualties at Ap Bac?

US lost 5 helicopters and 3 men. The ARVN lost 86. Was the NLF's first de facto victory.

What was the NLF's war aim?

They did not have to win, they simply fought to stay in existence.

What was the impact of Johnson's Great Society on his foreign policy?

He had to win over the conservative democrats in the South to support his domestic reforms and therefore needed a more aggressive foreign policy to counteract his welfare reforms.

How does McNamara describe the impact of the Gulf of Tonkin?

He says it "opened the floodgates" in Vietnam

By 1967 how many US personnel are in Vietnam?

525,000

How can the USA's tactics in Vietnam be described?

A hi-tech war of attrition

How much did the US spend in 1968 alone trying to contain Vietnam?

$30bn

What was the significance of Vietnam being televised?

It was the first televised war so it felt immediate and real to the US people in a way that Korea had not.

How many US troops land in Da Nang in March 1965?

3500

What does Johnson do about Strategic Hamlets and Operation Ranch Hand?

He continues both, causing starvation and genetic deformities for the Vietnamese

How can Operation Rolling Thunder be characterised, and what was its aim?

Carpet bombing to destroy key infrastructure in North Vietnam

Who is the head of strategy in Vietnam?

General Westmoreland

What sort of war does LBJ want to fight in Vietnam?

A war of containment, not an all out war

How many US troops were in Vietnam by 1968?

540,000

Give 6 reasons why escalation occurred under LBJ

-LBJ is under electoral pressure

-he thinks he is combatting Chinese expansionism

-Westmoreland's strategies are ineffective

-doesn't want to be the first US president to lose a war

-puts US prestige on the line

-ARVN couldn't fight without US support

How many search and destroy missions were effective?

1 in 100

What was the average age of US soldiers in Vietnam?

19

What regimes helped with the Ho Chi Minh trail?

The Khmer Rouge in Cambodia and the Pathet Lao in Laos

What countries support LBJ with escalation?

Australia, New Zealand, South Korea

What was the "enclave strategy", favoured by the marines?

Concentrating on the defence and pacification of heavily populated areas on the coast and in towns.

What infrastructure did US bombers hit in June 1966?

Oil depots around Hanoi and Haiphong

How did Johnson portray the Vietnam War?

He suggested that the US was merely supporting the ARVN, he shied away from patriotic appeals and refused to guess about when the war would end.

What happened at the Battle of Chu Lai in August 1965?

US marines killed 600 Viet Cong at the cost of 50 to themselves

What was the consequence of Ia Drang for the Viet Cong?

They changed tactics, refusing to engage in large scale clashes and concentrating more on guerilla ambushes.

How many VC were in South Vietnam in 1966?

225,000

How many South Vietnamese were made homeless by American bombing?

4 million

How did Westmoreland view search and destroy missions?

He believed they were essential, along with racking up the highest "body count" possible, to winning the war.

What city was destroyed by US bombardment in 1968?

Ben Tre

What were "free fire zones"?

Removing peasants from whole regions so that the US and ARVN could fight the communist fighters that remained.

How many more communist deaths than US deaths were there in January 1967?

Twelve times more

What was Operation Cedar Falls January 1967?

An attempt to destroy the "Iron Triangle", a VC stronghold north of Saigon

What was the Phoenix Programme of mid-1967?

An attempt to win "hearts and minds" and wipe out the VC using covert operations

When did McNamara go public with his criticisms of the government's Vietnam policy?

1967

What occurred for the first time in March 1965?

The first university "teach in" against the war

How many marched on the Pentagon in October 1967?

100,000

When did McNamara make the visit to South Vietnam which changed his mind about US involvement?

October 1966

What percentage of military entanglements did the VC start?

90%

Why could North Vietnam "lose every battle but still win the war"?

The US could not commit more men and supplies without reducing their commitments elsewhere or sacrificing the Great Society whilst the North would not run out of resources.

How many Diem officials were killed in 1961?

An estimated 4000

What proportion of US soldiers were conscripted from the end of 1965 onwards?

About 1/3 conscripted through the highly unequal draft.

How much did US involvement in Vietnam cost?

between $167-170bn, $1 trillion adjusted for inflation

What was the 'British invasion' and why was it significant in relation to Vietnam?

The popularity of open-minded left wing pop stars like The Beatles or The Who in the USA. Led to hippie counter-culture groups beginning to oppose the war in 1965.

When did opposition to the Vietnam war become main-stream?

1967-8

What did LBJ announce in early 1968 regarding Vietnam?

He announced that the US was "rolling back communism", which strongly implied success in Vietnam. He said this in the context of the November 1968 elections which set the precedent for the US public's opinion of Vietnam.

What song did Jimmi Hendrix release in 1969, criticising the war?

The star spangled banner- makes the US anthem sound war-like by mixing it with the Last Post.

What was happening in the Black rights movement in 1968?

-black power riots partly caused by the draft system

-black power salute at Mexico Olympics

When does MLK turn against Vietnam?

Late 1967

When was the Tet Offensive?

30th of January 1968

How many of the provincial capitals were hit in the Tet Offensive?

36 out of 44

How many North Vietnamese and NLF troops were involved in the Tet Offensive?

80,000

What was the aim of the Tet Offensive?

Mobilise a popular uprising against the South Vietnamese government, the NLF failed to achieve this.

Why did Ho Chi Minh agree to the Tet Offensive?

He was under pressure from the Maoist faction of the VWP as China were now giving equal amounts of aid to the USSR

How long was the NLF's fighting capacity destroyed for after Tet?

8-9 months

What did Tet show to the USA?

It showed that there was no end in sight, the only way to win the war was to escalate even further but this would come with great political cost.

When did McNamara resign?

November 1967

What did McNamara's resignation show?

A lack of purpose in US government.

How long did the NLF control the US embassy for?

6 hours- this was broadcast on live TV

What was fragging and when did it become common?

The killing of officers and sergeants by lower ranked soldiers. Became common after 1968.

What was the name given to soldiers conscripted after McNamara lowered the standards for conscription?

"McNamara's morons"

What is announced on the 31st of March 1968?

Stopping of the bombing of North Vietnam and LBJ's withdrawal from the presidential race.

How does Nixon view Vietnam at the beginning of his presidency?

He is not anti-war but sees the war as unwinnable. He uses the Soviet-Chinese division to get the US out of Vietnam and pursues detente.

Was Tet a defeat for the US?

It was a military victory which was turned into a psychological defeat by the media

How many PLAF forces died in Tet?

40,000

What did Cronkite conclude in a televised analysis on the 27th of February 1968?

"the bloody experience of Vietnam is to end in a stalemate"

What challenges did Johnson face from within the Democratic party?

Leadership challenges from Robert Kennedy and Eugene McCarthy

Which leader of South Vietnam did Nixon rely on for his policy of Vietnamisation?

Nguyen Van Thieu