Chapter 10 Nervous System Test Review

The Nervous System

Alzheimer’s disease (AD)

A form of dementia (progressive mental deterioration) resulting from atrophy of the frontal and occipital lobes of the brain. Alzheimer’s disease is marked by progressive, irreversible memory loss; deterioration of intellect; speech and gait (movement) disturbances; apathy; and disorientation.

Amnesia

Complete or partial loss of memories. Antegrade amnesia involves losing the ability to form new memories after an event. Retrograde amnesia is the loss of memories from before an event. Amnesia can be caused by traumatic brain injuries (TBIs), as well as mental illnesses such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)

A disease marked by muscular weakness and atrophy with involuntary contractions and excessive reflexes; caused by the degeneration of motor neurons in the spinal cord and in the brain’s medulla and cortex.

Anxiety disorders

A group of mental illnesses that share the core characteristic of anxiety (excessive worry, nervousness, or uneasiness).

Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)

An anxiety disorder characterized by excessive worry that is not restricted to specific situations or objects; often associated with physical symptoms such as heart palpitations, chest pain, tremors, sweating, nausea, or headaches.

Panic disorder (PD)

Anxiety disorder characterized by sudden, recurring attacks of intense anxiety and fear; can include physical symptoms that imitate a heart attack, as well as a general sense of loss of control.

Phobia

Exaggerated fear of a specific object or situation that causes anxiety and panic.

Social anxiety disorder

Anxiety disorder characterized by increased anxiety during social interactions.

Astrocytoma

Tumor of the neuroglial (glial) tissue.

Aura

A subjective sensation that often occurs before a migraine or seizure. (Migraine and seizure are described later in this section.) For example, a person with epilepsy may experience an aura consisting of flashing lights, numbness, tingling, or a peculiar odor prior to a seizure.

Bell’s palsy

Unilateral (one-sided) paralysis of the nerves that control the facial muscles, causing one side of the face to droop. Bell’s palsy, usually a temporary condition, is thought to be caused by a virus.

Brain tumor

Any intracranial mass, which may be neoplastic (a new growth), cystic (a sac containing fluid), or inflammatory (an abscess)

Cerebral aneurysm

Abnormal, localized (limited to one area) dilation of a blood vessel in the cerebrum. Usually, the dilation occurs in an artery. Cerebral aneurysms may place pressure on a nerve or other brain tissues and may rupture, causing severe complications.

Cerebral contusion

Bruising of cerebral tissue.

Cerebrovascular accident (CVA)

Death of brain tissue that occurs when an arterial blockage or arterial rupture prevents blood flow to the brain; commonly called stroke.

Hemorrhagic stroke

Type of CVA that occurs when a weakened blood vessel, such as an aneurysm, ruptures and bleeds into the surrounding tissue of the brain.

Ischemic stroke

Type of CVA that occurs when a blood vessel that supplies blood to the brain becomes occluded (blocked). The root of ischemic stroke is atherosclerosis (buildup of fatty plaque deposits in the arteries).

Coma

A state of extended unconsciousness caused by a medical crisis, such as a traumatic brain injury (TBI), stroke, infection, or illness (diabetes, for example).

Convulsion

A sudden, abnormal, involuntary contraction (or series of contractions) of the muscles. Although the term convulsion is often used synonymously with the term seizure, some seizures do not involve convulsions.

Delirium

A state of mental confusion and agitation characterized by disorientation of time and place, usually accompanied by hallucinations (false sensory experiences that are perceived as real) and illusions (misperceptions of environmental stimuli). Hearing voices when no one is present is an example of a hallucination. Perceiving the sound of footsteps amid the noise of rustling tree branches is an example of an illusion.

Dementia

A condition of progressive mental deterioration caused by organic brain disease (that is, caused by tissue changes in the brain). Dementia is characterized by memory loss, difficulties with language expression, and inability to perform ordinary daily activities of living.

Developmental disabilities

Complex, long-term conditions that develop before adulthood and affect physical development, intellectual development, or both.

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

Condition in which a person is frequently distracted, shows hyperactivity, and displays a lack of impulse control. ADHD often interferes with performance in school or at work.

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD)

Developmental disability characterized by difficulty communicating with others and focusing beyond oneself; inability to maintain eye contact; motor activity that is repetitious; and preoccupation with small objects. ASD is commonly diagnosed by the age of three.

Cerebral palsy (CP)

Disability that affects movement and muscle tone; caused by a condition in, or trauma to, the brain before birth.

Dyslexia

A learning disorder characterized by difficulty in recognizing and comprehending written language. Dyslexia affects reading and spelling abilities as well as self-expression.

Intellectual disability (ID)

Condition of below-average intelligence resulting in the inability to develop skills necessary for daily living. Also called intellectual development disorder (IDD).

Spina bifida (SB)

Split spine; condition in which part of the membrane covering the spinal cord protrudes through a gap in the spine.

Eating disorders

A group of mental illnesses characterized by an unhealthy focus on weight and food.

Anorexia nervosa

An eating disorder characterized by severely restricted eating, an intense fear of gaining weight, and a distorted perception of body image. Often abbreviated to anorexia.

Binge-eating disorder

The most common eating disorder in the United States; characterized by compulsive overeating, including a sense of loss of control.

Bulimia nervosa

Eating disorder characterized by binge eating that is followed by purging through induced vomiting, the use of laxatives, and/or excessive exercise. Often abbreviated to bulimia.

Epidural hematoma (EDH)

A mass of blood that forms between the skull and the dura mater as a result of the brain colliding against the skull, such as from a head injury or a fall. The internal bleeding that results creates pressure on the brain, which can cause brain damage or death if left untreated.

Epilepsy

A neurological disorder of the central nervous system in which the activity of neural cells in the brain becomes disrupted, causing seizures, unusual sensations, repeated twitching of the limbs, and occasionally loss of consciousness.

Guillain-Barré syndrome

Polyneuritis, or inflammation of multiple peripheral nerves. The condition is marked by progressive muscle weakness of the extremities, which may lead to paralysis; usually occurs during or after recovery from an infectious disease.

Headache (HA)

Diffuse pain (that is, pain that is spread out) in one or more parts of the head; unconfined to a particular area of nerve distribution.

Hemiplegia

Paralysis of one side of the body; also called hemiparesis.

Hydrocephalus

Accumulation of excess cerebrospinal fluid inside the ventricles of the brain, which causes cephalomegaly (enlargement of the head) and may cause brain damage; commonly seen in young children.

Meningitis

Inflammation of the meninges, usually due to an infection.

Meningocele

Congenital hernia in which the meninges protrude through an opening of the skull or spinal cord.

Migraine

A headache that produces intense throbbing and pain in one area of the head; is typically accompanied by nausea and/or vomiting and hypersensitivity to light and sound.

Mood disorders

A group of mental illnesses marked by depression that may alternate with periods of elation (feelings of happiness).

Bipolar disorder

A mental illness characterized by alternating periods of depression and mania. Mania is characterized by emotional highs, sleeplessness, racing thoughts, and excessive talking.

Depression

A mood disorder marked by persistent feelings of sadness, worthlessness, and lack of interest in daily activities. Depression causes fatigue and affects concentration, sleep, and appetite. Also called clinical depression or major depressive disorder.

Seasonal affective disorder (SAD)

A form of depression that occurs during the fall and winter seasons as a result of less exposure to natural sunlight.

Multiple sclerosis (MS)

A chronic, slow-progressing disease of the central nervous system marked by development of thin, demyelinated (without myelin) glial patches called plaques. Symptoms include weakness or numbness in the limbs, unsteady gait, uncoordinated movements, and fatigue. Multiple sclerosis is characterized by demyelination, or damage to the myelin sheaths of neurons.

Myasthenia gravis (MG)

A disease of the skeletal muscles caused by disruption in neural communication between the muscles and the nerves; marked by severe weakness and fatigue.

Myelomeningocele

A form of spina bifida (split spine) marked by protrusion of a portion of the spinal cord and the meninges through the spine.

Narcolepsy

A condition characterized by an overwhelming tendency to fall asleep and sudden sleep attacks; characterized by changes in the brain.

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)

Mental illness in which irrational thoughts and fears cause one to perform repetitive actions (for example, excessive handwashing due to the fear of becoming contaminated by germs).

Paralysis

Temporary or permanent loss of voluntary movement (motor function).

Paraplegia

Loss of voluntary movement (motor function) in the lower half of the body, including both legs; often as a result of spinal cord injury (SCI) or disease.

Paresthesia

Sensation of numbness, prickling, or tingling, usually in the upper or lower extremities; caused by irritation of, or injury to, sensory nerves or nerve roots.

Parkinson’s disease (PD)

Progressive disorder of the nervous system marked by signs such as tremor, bradykinesia (slow movement), muscular rigidity, and an irregular gait. Some people with PD may also experience delusions and hallucinations.

Poliomyelitis (polio)

Inflammation of the gray matter of the spinal cord; caused by a highly contagious virus.

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

Mental illness resulting from an extremely traumatic experience, illness, or injury that triggers persistent thoughts and memories of the experience. PTSD may occur after war, physical or sexual abuse, violent personal attack, natural disaster, serious accident, or loss of a loved one. Symptoms include fear, restlessness, nightmares, insomnia, and avoidance of anything or anyone that triggers the painful memories.

Psychotic disorders (psychoses)

A group of mental illnesses characterized by loss of touch with reality, hallucinations, and delusions; psychoses.

Postpartum psychosis

Rare psychiatric condition that develops within the first week after childbirth; characterized by confusion, disorientation, hallucinations, delusions, obsessive thoughts about the infant, paranoia, sleep disturbances, and/or attempts to harm the infant or self.

Schizoaffective disorder

Chronic disorder in which a person experiences symptoms of both schizophrenia (for example, hallucinations or delusions) and symptoms of a mood disorder (depression or mania).

Schizophrenia spectrum disorder

A mental illness that produces distorted thought processes and emotional perceptions; characterized by delusions, hallucinations, and/or periods of unresponsiveness.

Reye’s syndrome

A rare but serious condition that results in acute encephalopathy (brain malfunction) and hepatomegaly (liver enlargement); typically seen in children younger than 18 years of age after a viral infection. Signs and symptoms include confusion, seizures, and loss of consciousness.

Seizure

A disruption of electrical activity in the brain that produces physical and mental changes, such as convulsions, sensory disturbances, and loss of consciousness.

Focal seizure

Abnormal electrical activity that occurs in one or more parts of one brain hemisphere; partial seizure.

Grand mal seizure

An epileptic seizure characterized by violent muscle contractions and loss of consciousness; tonic-clonic seizure.

Petit mal seizure

Brief, sudden lapses of consciousness, most commonly characterized by vacant staring for 10 to 15 seconds. Petit mal seizures are more common in children than in adults.

Shingles

Eruption of a painful rash, often on the trunk (torso) of the body along a peripheral nerve; caused by the varicella-zoster virus (VZV), which also causes chickenpox. If you have had chickenpox, the virus remains dormant in the nerve tissue near your brain and spinal cord, and it may reactivate as shingles later in your life.

Somnambulism

Sleepwalking; can be hereditary or caused by extreme fatigue, interrupted sleep, illness, or medications.

Substance use disorders

Mental illnesses involving the abusive use of substances such as drugs, medications, alcohol, or toxins; characterized by addiction, as well as social and personal dysfunction.

Syncope

A temporary loss of consciousness due to inadequate blood flow to the brain; fainting.

Transient ischemic attack (TIA)

A brief stoppage of blood flow (ischemia) to a part of the brain; precursor to, or warning sign of, a stroke.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI)

Result of a violent impact to the head. Injuries are classified as mild, moderate, or severe with increasing levels of damage to the nervous system, particularly to the cells and tissues of the brain.

Concussion

A traumatic brain injury (TBI) resulting from a blow to the head or violent shaking of the head and upper body. A concussion causes partial or complete loss of brain functions, which can result in memory loss, impaired coordination, difficulty with balance, and dizziness.

Contusion

A bruise to the brain itself. Localized trauma causes bleeding on the brain.

Subdural hematoma (SDH)

A mass of blood between the dura mater and the arachnoid mater of the brain; the most common type of traumatic brain injury (TBI).

Tremor

An involuntary, repetitive trembling of the body or limbs.

Unconsciousness

Lack of awareness of oneself and the inability to respond to environmental stimuli due to injury, shock, or oxygen deprivation.

Cerebral angiography

X-ray of the blood vessels in the brain after a contrast medium (dye) has been injected; used to diagnose a CVA and other injuries and disorders of the brain.

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

Record of the electrical impulses in the brain; used to diagnose neurological conditions that affect brain function and level of consciousness.

Lumbar puncture (LP)

Insertion of a needle between two lumbar vertebrae (in the lower spine) to remove a sample of cerebrospinal fluid for diagnostic evaluation or therapeutic treatment; commonly used to diagnose meningitis.

Mental status exam (MSE)

Screening method that assesses a patient’s appearance, eye contact, consciousness, memory, attention, perception, motor activity, cognitive performance, thoughts, mood, judgment, sensory deficits, as well as whether the patient is a danger to self or others.

Mini-mental state exam (MMSE)

Screening method for cognitive impairment and dementia; examines mental functions, including attention, thinking, memory, language, and the ability to follow simple commands; also called the Folstein test.

Myelogram

Procedure in which an X-ray of the spinal cord is taken after a contrast agent (dye) has been injected into the spine.

Nerve conduction velocity (NCV)

Procedure in which electrodes are placed on the surface of the body over specific nerve areas, and a mild electrical impulse is delivered to the areas. NCV measures the speed at which electrical impulses travel through a nerve.

Positron emission tomography (PET)

Procedure that uses nuclear medicine and computerized tomography to generate images of the brain; commonly used to diagnose a CVA, Alzheimer’s disease, and epilepsy. Also called a brain scan.

Psychiatric review of systems (ROS)

Screening method that detects significant issues or recent changes in nine areas (cognition, psychosis, substance use, mood, neurovegetative, anxiety, eating disorder, violence, and impulse control); helps diagnose mental health conditions.

Reflex testing

Diagnostic test in which a part of the body is percussed (tapped) with a reflex hammer or other diagnostic stimulus to measure the presence and strength of muscular reflexes. A reflex is an involuntary reaction to a stimulus.

Babinski sign

Reflex in which the toes curl upward when the plantar surface (sole) of the foot is stimulated. A positive Babinski sign in an adult or child older than two years of age indicates a disorder in the brain or nervous system (for example, a brain tumor, meningitis, or multiple sclerosis). Also called Babinski reflex.

Deep tendon reflexes (DTRs)

Involuntary muscle contractions that occur when the tendons associated with certain areas of the limbs (for example, the patella, or knee) are percussed with a reflex hammer. A standard neurological exam includes a test of DTRs.

Biofeedback

Therapeutic technique that involves gaining a greater awareness of one’s physiological functions (such as blood pressure and heart rate); can help relieve anxiety and stress.

Carotid endarterectomy

Surgical removal of fatty deposits in one or both carotid arteries (arteries that supply blood to the brain); commonly used to prevent a CVA.

Cerebrospinal fluid shunt

A surgically implanted device that drains cerebrospinal fluid in a controlled manner from the brain ventricles to the abdomen or heart; commonly used to treat hydrocephalus (excessive accumulation of CSF in the ventricles)

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)

Form of psychotherapy (defined at the end of this section) or mental health counseling wherein the goal is to help the client to gain an improved awareness of negative thought processes and adopt strategies for counteracting negative thinking.

Craniectomy

Surgical removal of part of the skull to gain access to the brain; most commonly used to treat swelling in the brain.

Craniotomy

Incision into the skull to gain access to the brain.

Diskectomy

Surgical removal of a herniated (protruding) vertebral disk.

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)

Electrical shock applied to the brain under medical supervision to trigger convulsions. ECT has been shown to produce changes in brain chemistry that can benefit treatment of severe depression.

Expressive arts therapies

Forms of therapy that use expressive arts, such as dance, art, and music, to improve mental and emotional well-being.

Hypnosis

Therapeutic technique that involves entering a state of increased focus and concentration; can be used to control pain and help relieve anxiety and stress; also called hypnotherapy.

Laminectomy

Procedure in which the vertebral lamina (LAM-ih-nuh), or the part of the bone that makes up a vertebra in the spine, is surgically removed, allowing access to the spinal cord; commonly used to treat a herniated disk.

Light therapy

Use of a specialized light source, which replicates natural sunlight, to treat seasonal affective disorder.