application of behaviour

what are factors that might influece variation in behaviour within a species

• Age (e.g. young animals are more active, more likely to play and spend more time sleeping)

• Sex (e.g. depending on social structure, females may be less bold confronted with threat, may distance from the group during parturition, males may disperse and range further etc)

• Confinement - Behaviour may be limited by the space available and what resource is present in the pen / enclosure

• Group size and composition - e.g. if the group is too large for resource, competition may be greater, the presence of males may suppress fighting between females etc depending on natural social structure 

• Season e.g. animal ma alter behaviour during breeding or migration, hibernation or changes in weather 

• Time of day - animals show diurnal rhythm in patterning of behaviour  

• Human presence e.g. Rabbits hide signs of pain when humans are present…… But if you catch them on video, signs are much more obviou

what features would be important in raceway design

• Cows like to move together so there needs to be enough space to allow this, at least initially, before funnelling down to a narrower run if necessary.

• The side walls should be solid and high enough that the cows cannot see out and they should be curved rather than square to avoid baulking.

• The raceway should be uniformly lit with an even, non-slip floor. 

• It may help to have two parallel runs with railings between so that cows can see each other

how could you use behaviour to help determine the welfare of an animal or group

• Become familiar with key indicators of different affective states and with normal behaviour patterns for that species

• Look for changes in normal behaviour indicative of disturbance or negative states and signs of abnormal behaviour:

• Behaviour at rest, before you approach

• Reaction to you (alert, curious, dull or fearful?)

• Evidence of stereotypic behaviour and of other abnormal behaviours such as withdrawal, excessive aggression or self-harm.

• Try to identify causes of abnormal behaviour or undesirable behaviour (e.g. disease, confined environment, rough handling, exhaustion

stereotypic behaviour and examples

• Stereotypies are repetitive behaviour patterns that have no obvious purpose in the context in which they are performed. They have been thought to potentially be a coping strategy as they are associated with release of endorphins, but more recent thinking shows this impact is only partial - it does not alter the predisposing situation and does not necessarily even mean that the animal’s poor welfare is resolved by stereotypy performance.

• Stereotypes appear often to derive from frustration of highly motivated normal behaviour (such as that associated with foraging, escape behaviour or social reinstatement behaviour) in situations of under-stimulation (barren environment, little or no choice of activities), insufficient space (confinement), absence of important resources (situations of high frustration), social isolation and environments too different from the natural environment to support adaptation. Animals repeatedly attempt to perform behaviour which cannot be consummated in the situation they are in. This leads to development of behavioural 'loops' which become fixed. In addition stereotypies are associated in many instances with neurological dysfunction ie are malfunctional.

• Examples would include oral stereotypies such as bar-biting by calves and sows, and locomotor stereotypies e.g. pacing by wild cats kept in cages, summersaulting in caged voles and weaving in horses.

why may abnormal behaviour patterns considered to be potentially associated with poor welfare

• They are usually not seen in animals in a natural environment

• They tend to occur most frequently in animals kept in a poor environments which do not sufficiently meet animal's needs and to which animals cannot adapt

• Abnormal behaviours may cause suffering (e.g. injuries feather-pecking in chickens, tail-biting in pigs) 

• Environments in which stereotypies are observed often associated with other measures of poor welfare (e.g. levels of cortisol, body condition etc) (eg Mason & Lathan 2004)

• Some stereotypies appear to be associated with brain dysfunction, may impact negatively on cognitive and social function (e.g. Diez-Leon et al 2013)

ways of resolving behaviour problems

Diagnosis involving history & behavioural observation assessment Early treatment more effective Treatment multifactorial • Behaviour modification techniques eg avoidance, desensitisation (but not flooding), counter conditioning, distraction , enrichment • Training of alternative behaviours (incompatible with undesired) eg sitting rewarded vs jumping up • Medication where appropriate (integrated) Referral to a certified clinical behaviourist may be needed

what can lead to chronic negative states

Environmental challenge is part of life but acute negative states which are repeated / cannot be resolved lead to chronic negative states Too many challenges - cannot adapt Insufficient stimulation & highly motivated behaviour impacted

what is important in managing stress

Experience of early life complexity & stimulation improves resilience to challenge Prediction & control are very important in managing stress • Animals able to predict and prepare for events are less stressed • Animals able to exercise some control in exposure are less stressed

impacts of deficits in provision for motivated behaviour

Many management systems can frustrate highly motivated behaviour e.g. • feeding & foraging (substrate & opportunity deficits), e.g. grazing in horses, rooting in pigs • nesting (substrate & suitable location, quantity deficits ) e.g. nestbuilding in sows, piling in hens • maintenance (substrate & space deficits), e.g. dustbathing in hens • ranging (space deficits) e.g. captive carnivores with larger natural ranges show greater stereotypy & infant mortality (Clubb & Mason 2003) • exploration & cognitive stimulation (novelty, complexity deficits)Many management systems can frustrate highly motivated behaviour e.g. • feeding & foraging (substrate & opportunity deficits), e.g. grazing in horses, rooting in pigs • nesting (substrate & suitable location, quantity deficits ) e.g. nestbuilding in sows, piling in hens • maintenance (substrate & space deficits), e.g. dustbathing in hens • ranging (space deficits) e.g. captive carnivores with larger natural ranges show greater stereotypy & infant mortality (Clubb & Mason 2003) • exploration & cognitive stimulation (novelty, complexity deficits)

stress, frustration, chronic negative states, abnormal behaviour, poor reproduction • health effects eg stomach ulcers, cardiac disease, immune deficiency, neurological deficits • poor development & flexibility & increased fearfulness

impacts of other deficits in the physical environemnt

Managed environments may constrain senses or introduce aversive stimuli e.g. • Artificial lighting, noise, atmospheric pollution, • Cleaning & cleaning products & handling • Spatial navigation

Potential impacts on normal behaviour function, fear, aversion and stress responses, chronic negative states

ways to manage the physical environment

Incorporation of behaviour & sensory capacities in design of housing husbandry & management to avoid mis-fit with behaviour • Where possible avoid / minimise constraints on senses & resource location • Match complexity of rearing and later environments • Use natural and learned (habituation, classical & operant conditioning) behaviour to facilitate handling

when do behaviour indicate welfare

if they:

• Homologous with human biology (where underpinning physiology / neural architecture is conserved) • Occur consistently in different good OR bad situations (but not both good and bad) • Correlate with other validated indicators

short term

Fear: escape/avoidance, vocalisation, defecation, showing eye whites • Social isolation stress: searching behaviour • Pain: protection or guarding

long term

sickness or chronic negative states (anxiety, Mackintosh et al 2011: J Royal Soc Inter 8(63):1497 Baboon locomotion depression): lethargy, depression anhedonia & sleep disruption, • changes in pattern of normal behaviour such as less/more high energy or low resilience behaviours, altered space-use or frequencies

stereotypic behaviours

“Repetitive activities cause by motivational frustration and / or brain dysfunction (Mason 2006) • Can be maladaptive – attempts to behave adaptively in an environment to which complete adaptation may be impossible (Mills 2003) – can develop FROM normal behaviour with sustained high motivations that cannot be consummated ▪ Eg Escape attempts when not possible • Can be mal-functional – expression of pathology associated with environments that negatively affect brain regions controlling motor behaviour - altered basal ganglia function, learning deficiencies and possible social dysfunction

contributing environmental factors to stereotypic behaviours

feed restriction, isolation, barren environments, • associated with stress particularly in early life eg abrupt weaning / lack maternal care in some species

caution of using stereotypy

persistent – becoming more fixed with age, considered by some a possible ‘coping strategy’ • BUT impairs function, still means poor environment at some stage and doesn’t resolve welfare • Animals not stereotyping in same environment equal or Mason & Latham (2004) higher cortisol levels