Biology Exam Flashcards

Photosynthesis Equation

6CO2+6H2O+Sunlight—>C6H12O6+6O2

Photosynthesis

• Captures energy from sunlight to make sugars

• Occurs in the chloroplast

Producers

Photosynthetic organisms are producers (plants make their own source of energy using photosynthesis)

Chlorophyll

• Found in chloroplasts

• Is a molecule that absorbs light energy—part of the thylakoid membrane

Photosynthesis takes place in two parts of chloroplasts…

• Grana—stack of many thylakoids, inside each thylakoid membrane are pigments (molecules that absorb specific wavelengths of light)

• Stroma—fluid outside the thylakoids

Stage 1 of Photosynthesis

• Light-dependent reactions

• Thylakoid

• 6H20+Sunlight—>6O2 (released)+ATP

Stage 2 of Photosynthesis

• Light-independent reactions

• Stroma

• 6CO2+ATP—>C6H12O6 (Calvin Cycle)

Photosynthesis Diagram

• A: Light dependent reactions

• B: Light independent reactions

• C: Grana

• D: Sunlight

• E: 6H2O

• F: Thylakoid

• G: 6O2

• H: C6H12O6

• I: Calvin Cycle

• J: 6CO2

Enzymes and energy in photosynthesis

• Enzyme: NADPH (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate), helps convert glucose in Calvin Cycle

• Energy: ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and ADP (adenosine diphosphate)

Cellular Respiration Equation

C6H12O6+6O2—>6CO2+6H2O+ATP

Cellular respiration

• Makes ATP by breaking down sugars

• Cellular respiration is aerobic (requires oxygen), glycolysis is anaerobic

• Aerobic stages take place in the mitochondria

Glycolysis

• Must take place first, is anaerobic

• Occurs in the cytoplasm

• Glucose (C6H12O6)—>2 3-carbon molecules (pyruvate)

Stage 1 of Cellular Respiration

• Kreb’s Cycle

• Occurs in the mitochondria matrix

• Pyruvate—>ATP (makes 4, uses 2)+6CO2

Stage 2 of Cellular Respiration

• Electron transport chain

• Occurs in the inner membrane

• 6O2+ATP (2)—>36-38 ATP+6H2O

Glycolysis Process

• Glucose—>Glycolysis—>Pyruvate

• Without oxygen: Lactic acid (animals), ethyl alcohol+CO2 (plants)

• With oxygen: Kreb’s Cycle, Electron Transport Chain

Cellular Respiration Diagram

• A: Kreb’s Cycle

• B: Pyruvate

• C: ATP and 6CO2

• D: ATP

• E: 6H2O

• F: energy and 6O2

• G: Electron Transport Chain

Lab Notes

• Cabbage juice indicator is a great pH indicator, helps us identify pH of acids and bases

• In the presence of acids or carbon, CJ turns a lighter color/pink

• What was added to the cabbage juice indicator that contained carbon?

  • Dilute acid (vinegar)

  • Carbonated beverage (sprite)

  • Breath (that contained carbon)

  • Wheat grass seeds (25 germinated in one, 25 dry in another)

What stage of mitosis is this?

Early prophase

What stage of mitosis is this?

Telophase

What stage of mitosis is this?

Metaphase

What stage of mitosis is this?

Interphase

What stage of mitosis is this?

Anaphase

What stage of mitosis is this?

Late prophase

End product of mitosis

Two identical diploid cells

Cell Cycle

• Gap 1 (G1)

• Synthesis (S)

• Gap 2 (G2)

• Prophase

• Metaphase

• Anaphase

• Telophase

• Cytokinesis

• PMAT is mitosis

Interphase

Cell is growing and preparing for division

Gap 1 (G1)

Cell growth and normal functions and replicate their organelles

DNA Synthesis (S)

DNA replication

Gap 2 (G2)

Growth and preparing for division

Mitosis

Nuclear division/growth and development—results in 2 daughter cells with the same number of chromosomes (two identical diploid cells)

Prophase

Nuclear envelope dissolves, DNA condenses, chromosomes first become visible

Metaphase

Chromosomes line up in center, centrosomes are at opposite poles

Anaphase

Sister chromatids separate and are pulled to the poles of the cell

Telophase

Nuclear membrane reforms, cleavage furrow or cell plate forms, chromosomes begin to uncoil

Cytokinesis

• Cytoplasm divides and two daughter cells are created

• Differs in animal and plant cells:

  • Animal cells: forms a cleavage furrow and membrane pinches closed

  • Plant cells: a cell plate forms

Each daughter cell has…

46 chromosomes because DNA is duplicated before the cell divides

Apoptosis and Necrosis

• Apoptosis: programmed cell death

• Necrosis: accidental cell death

Haploid cells

have half the number of chromosomes

Diploid cells

have two complete sets of chromosomes

Somatic cells

are diploid cells, body cells

Germ cells

are haploid cells, gametes (egg and sperm), cells in your reproductive organs that develop into gametes

Chromosome structure

• Sister chromatids

• Kinetochore

• Spindle fibers

• Centromere

Meiosis

a type of cell division that results in four daughter cells each with half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell, as in the production of gametes

End product of meiosis

4 genetically diverse haploid daughter cells

What stage of meiosis is this?

Interphase G1

What stage of meiosis is this?

Interphase S

What stage of meiosis is this?

Prophase I

What stage of meiosis is this?

Metaphase I

What stage of meiosis is this?

Anaphase I

What stage of meiosis is this?

Telophase I

What stage of meiosis is this?

Prophase II

What stage of meiosis is this?

Metaphase II

What stage of meiosis is this?

Anaphase II

What stage of meiosis is this?

Telophase II

Interphase G1 Meiosis

Cell is increasing in size (23 chromosomes)

Interphase S Meiosis

DNA is replicated to create two copies of each chromosome (46)

Prophase I

• The DNA starts to coil itself up into visible chromosomes

• The copies of each chromosome (sister chromatids) are connected together by a centromere

• During the end of this stage the nuclear membrane starts to dissolve, centromeres move towards the poles, and spindle fibers start to form

• Crossing over occurs during this stage

Metaphase I

• Spindle fibers are completely formed and attach to the centromeres of the homologous chromosomes

• The chromosomes line up down the middle of the spindles along with their homologous pair

Anaphase I

• At this point the spindle fibers start to pull on the chromosomes and each homologous chromosome heads to a different pole

Telophase I

• Chromosomes are now at the pole, nuclear membranes start to form around the chromosomes

• Cells are still diploid at this point

• Cleavage furrow is forming

Prophase II

• Skip interphase because there is no replication of DNA

• The chromosomes reorganize and nuclear membrane starts to dissolve again

• Sister chromatids again joined by a centromere

• Spindles start to reform between the centrosomes

Metaphase II

• Spindles are fully formed again and attach to the centromeres

• The chromosomes line up down the middle of the spindles

Anaphase II

• The spindles pull the sister chromatids apart. Each goes toward a different pole

Telophase II

• Nuclear membranes start to form around the chromosomes again. A cleavage furrow forms. Cytokinesis begins

Meiosis Number of Chromosomes

• Meiosis 1: pairs of homologous chromosomes separate (46 pairs of chromosomes to 23 chromosomes)

• Meiosis 2: 23 sister chromatids

Gametes

egg and sperm cells

Gametogenesis

the production of gametes

Oogenesis

the production of mature egg cells (1 egg and 3 polar bodies)

Spermatogenesis

the production of sperm (4 sperm)

Egg

female gamete developed in the ovaries

Sperm

male gamete developed in the testes

Polar bodies

smaller cells that contain little more than DNA, and are eventually broken down, do not produce eggs

Chiasma (chiasmata)

the microscopically visible site where crossing over has occurred between chromatids of homologous chromosomes during prophase I of meiosis

Crossing over

exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes during prophase I of meiosis

Tetrad

structure containing 4 chromatids that forms during meiosis. Occurs in prophase I. Allows for crossing over to occur

46 chromosomes

number of chromosomes a human body cell has (23 pairs—22 autosome and 1 sex chromosome)

23 chromosomes

number of chromosomes a human sex cell has

Homologous chromosomes

matching chromosomes from mother and father, two chromosomes that are the same size and have copies of the same genes

Synapsis

the pairing of homologous chromosomes during meiosis (prophase I) during which crossing over may occur

Replication

chromosomes duplicate before dividing in meiosis

Independent assortment

the random sorting of homologous chromosomes during metaphase I and II

Sexual reproduction

involves two gametes (egg and sperm) joining together

Fertilization

when the egg and sperm join successfully

Autosomes

chromosomes that contain genes for all the rest of an organism’s life functions

Sex chromosomes

chromosomes that determine the sex of an organism (x and y)

Diploid (meiosis)

containing two sets of chromosomes, one from each parent

Haploid (meiosis)

an organism or cell having only one complete set of chromosomes

Monohybrid crosses

• Crosses one trait

• Put across top and bottom, write cross in each box

Dihybrid cross (how to do)

• Crosses two traits

• Write letters (genotype of each parent), FOIL, put each possible allele in front of each column/row, write cross in each box

• Steps: Key, FOIL, chart, genotypes (letters, write number of each), phenotypes (physical characteristic, write number/percentage of each)

Trait

characteristics that are inherited

Genetics

study of heredity patterns and variation of organisms

Cross

the mating of two organisms in the context of genetics

DNA

deoxyribonucleic acid

Law of Segregation

the principle, originated by Gregor Mendel, stating that during the production of gametes the two copies of each hereditary factor segregate so that offspring acquire one factor from each parent

Gene

a piece of of DNA that provides a set of instructions to a cell to make a certain protein and is located at a particular on a chromosome

Allele

one of a number of different forms of a gene (round or wrinkled for pea shape)

Homozygous

alleles that are identical to each other (AA or aa)

Heterozygous

alleles that are different from each other (Aa), two heterozygous parent offspring ratio is 9-3-3-1 for a dihybrid cross

Genome

all of an organisms genetic material

Phenotype

physical characteristics of the person or organism