chapter 7 - MA Certificate

Hormones

Chemicals that help in carrying information from one group of cells to another.

Hormones

Involves in growth, mood, system functions, metabolism, sexual maturity, and reproduction.

Illness; stress

____ and ____ may vary and affect hormonal levels.

Exocrine Glands

Sweat or salivary glands, deliver their secretions directly onto a surface and are not part of the endocrine system.

Endocrine glands

Make up the hormone system in the body, secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream.

target

Once hormones are in the blood stream, they are carried to ___ cells to perform their functions.

Hypothalamus

Present in the inferior mid portion of the brain and serves as a major connection between the nervous system and the endocrine system.

Controls the action of the pituitary gland.

Pineal Gland

It is present deep within the brain and is helpful in the excretion of melatonin.

Pituitary Gland

It is present below the hypothalamus and is a pea-sized gland.

It secretes hormones that regulate multiple endocrine glands and is referred to as the “master gland.”

It comprises anterior and posterior lobes.

Thyroid

It is present in the anterior neck and is butterfly-shaped.

The thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) stimulates the thyroid gland to produce the thyroid hormones triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4).

The thyroid gland hormones are responsible for regulating metabolism.

Pancreas

It is located in the upper abdomen.

It maintains normal blood glucose levels through the secretion of insulin.

Parathyroid Gland

Present on the dorsal aspect of the thyroid gland.

Releases hormones such as parathyroid and calcitonin, which are involved in the regulation of calcium levels in the blood.

Thymus Gland

Present behind the upper portion of the sternum and secretes hormones that are involved in the stimulation of T-cell production.

Present at birth; becomes bigger with age and begins to atrophy during puberty.

Important for T-cell maturation.

Adrenals

Present on the top of each kidney.

Triangular-shaped with an outer layer (the adrenal cortex) and an inner body (the adrenal medulla)

Produce hormones that modulate stress response and regulate many body functions.

Reproductive

Includes male and female gonads that produce sex hormones.

Testosterone

Male gonads located in the scrotum; involved in the secretion of ___.

Estrogen; Progesterone

Female gonads located in the pelvis; involved in the secretion of ___ and ___.

Eggs; Ova

Female gonads include ovaries, which produce ___ or ___.

Anterior pituitary

____ ____ produces hormones that include growth hormone (GH), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), prolactin (PRL), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), and luteinizing hormone (LH).

Posterior Pituitary

____ ____ secretes oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone (ADH).

Oxytocin

Helps in contraction of uterus during labor and plays an essential role in stimulation of the flow of breast milk during breast feeding.

ADH

Acts on the kidneys and regulates fluid and electrolyte balance.

Melatonin

Secreted by pineal gland; involved in the regulation of waking and sleeping patterns and also in seasonal reactions to alterations in the presence of sunlight.

Thyroid Gland

Helps in controlling the metabolic rate and is an important factor that contributes to bone growth and nervous system development in children.

Parathyroid hormones

Promote calcium absorption from the gastrointestinal tract and stimulate the calcium re-absorption stored in the bone to maintain homeostasis.

Calcitonin

Stimulates calcium deposition into the bones in the presence of excess calcium.

Adrenal Cortex

Secretes corticosteroids such as cortisol, aldosterone, and adrenal androgens that affect a broad range of bodily functions.

Adrenal Medulla

Secretes epinephrine or adrenaline that moderates the activation of the body’s reaction to stress.

Testosterone

Promotes sperm production and regulates the development of secondary sexual characteristics that include voice changes and the growth of facial and pubic hair.

Estrogen; progesterone

Regulate breast tissue development and other secondary sexual characteristics. These hormones regulate menstruation and have important roles in pregnancy.

Insulin; Glucagon

Hormones of pancreas; help in maintaining normal blood glucose level and reserve glucose for energy.

Diabetes Inspidus

The lack of ADH may cause dysfunction of the renal tubules.

The presence of a kidney disease or the side effects of certain medications may also cause an inadequate response to ADH in the renal tubules, leading to diabetes insipidus.

Diabetes insipidus occurs abruptly. It is characterized by polyuria, polydipsia, nocturia, urine of low specific gravity, and high blood plasma osmolarity. It may cause fatal dehydration if not treated on time.

Dwarfism

Insufficient or underproduction of GH from the pituitary gland causes hypopituitary ___. In this condition, the child will have impaired height, but head and trunk are of normal size.

Hypersecretion; oversecretion

____ or ____ of GH leads to two different disorders based on the patient’s developmental age.

Gigantism

In children, hypersecretion of GH before the closing of the epiphyseal plates in the long bones leads to excessive growth of lone bones. The children may reach a height of 8 feet or more and may develop diabetes mellitus and a secondary affect.

Acromegaly

In adults, oversecretion of GH causes ___. Due to the closure of epiphyseal plates, there is no growth of long bones, but the bones of the jaw, face, hands, and feet show a gradual and noticeable enlargement.

Signs and symptoms : arthralgia, an enlarged tongue, overactive sebaceous and sweat glands, coarse skin, excessive body hair, and nerve damage.

Complications of advanced ___ includes congestive heart failure, DM, cerebrovascular abnormalities, and neurologic symptoms.

Diabetes mellitus

A metabolic disorder characterized by elevated blood glucose levels, which can lead to acute and chronic complications.

If left untreated or poorly controlled, can cause serious, life-threatening complications, including:

CV disease and hypertension, Ictus, Renal disease, blindness, NS disorders, amputations, pregnancy complications, diabetic coma.

Hypoglycemia

This occurs if the patient’s blood glucose drops below 70mg/dL.

Signs and symptoms include tremors, dizziness, palpitations, diaphoresis, headache, hunger, pallor, fatigue, confusion, irritability, poor judgment, visual disturbances, convulsions and coma.

Hypoglycemia Treatment

• Glucose tablets containing 5 g of glucose are recommended to treat urgent cases of hypoglycemia. Administer 15 g of carbohydrates (3 glucose tablets) immediately, while the patient is conscious.

• Wait 15 minutes and recheck the reading. If the level is low, repeat the first step.

• Once the symptoms are relieved, let the patient eat a normal meal.

• If symptoms persist, inject glucagon to quickly raise blood sugar levels.

Diabetic Ketoacidosis

This occurs when a person with diabetes is unable to use glucose as a source of energy due to the absence or insufficiency of insulin. It can become a medical emergency if symptoms are not recognized and treated in time.

Blood glucose levels increase from 300 to 750 mg/dL, resulting in hyperglycemia.

The body’s cells cannot use carbohydrates as a source of energy and begin to burn fat releasing ketones as a byproduct.

Ketones increase in the bloodstream, making it acidic.

Diabetic retinopathy

Involves changes in the retinal capillaries and causes visual disturbances, retinal detachment and blindness. Adequate control of glucose levels can delay the onset of ___.

Episodes of hyperglycemia damage the retinal blood vessels.

Patients with diabetes should undergo annual eye examinations and frequent ophthalmological examinations to diagnose retinopathy as early as possible to prevent the risk of glaucoma and cataracts.

Diabetic nephropathy

Diabetes affects the small blood vessels in the kidneys and hinders the filtration process. Degenerative changes may affect the glomerular unit and cause renal failure.

Patients with type I diabetes mellitus, compared to those with type II diabetes mellitus, have an increased risk of diabetic kidney disease.

Frequent albuminuria testing helps diagnose kidney disease, as urinary protein is the first sign of kidney disease.

Further progression of the disease may cause kidney failure and require dialysis or kidney transplantation.

Atherosclerosis

The most common health problems in patients with diabetes mellitus.

infection

Many factors increase the risk of ___ and delayed wound healing in diabetic patients.

Diabetic neuropathy

The most common complication affected most diabetic patients. Nerve damage caused by both vascular changes and hyperglycemia.

The patient loses the ability to react to injuries due to loss of sensation in the extremities.