A&P Final (CH. 1-4)

anatomy

study of structure/form

physiology

study of function (of those structures)

levels of the hierarchy of life

“All Men Own Cats, They Often Own One, Paws Catch Every Bug.”

atom, molecule, organelle, cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organism, population, community, ecosystem, biosphere

atom example

molecule example

(hierarchy of life)

carbon atom, water molecule

organelle example

tissue example

organ example

(hierarchy of life)

ribosome, simple squamous epithelium, liver

About one of every thousand people is born with extra digits.

anatomical variation

Missing muscles, extra vertebrae, renal arteries

• ex.) Most people have 5 lumbar vertebrae, but I was born with 6.

anatomical variation

Because of differences in enzyme function, children must be given a smaller dose of Tylenol.

Physiological Variation

Some hypothesize that differences in COVID-19 symptoms is due to difference in patient immune system function.

Physiological Variation

feeling structures inside the body by applying slight pressure with the fingers

Palpation

Uses X-rays (radiation) to produce a 3-dimentional image of soft tissues

CT Scan (Computer Topographic Scan)

X-rays =

bone structure

MRI =

soft tissue

Uses magnets to producing 3-dimentional images of soft tissue. Less damaging to healthy tissue

MRI (Magnetic Resonance Image)

magnetic field - uses increases in metabolic activity or blood flow to infer which areas of the body are associated with a function

function MRI (fMRI)

radiactive tracer - uses increases in metabolic activity or blood flow to infer which areas of the body are associated with a function

PET scan

electroencephalogram =

brain activity

Observing the superficial appearance of the body

Inspection

Tapping the body and listening to the sounds produced in response to the tapping

Percussion

Using a stethoscope to listen to sounds inside the body (without tapping)

Auscultation

Making a small incision in the body to remove tissue for evaluation

Biopsy

Uses sound waves to produce images. Used to assess fetal development during pregnancy.

Sonography

the ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions

homeostasis

what feedback loop opposes change + promotes a stable environment found inside our bodies?

negative feedback loop

When our body temperature rises, blood vessels in the skin dilate, Heat moves from high temperature towards the lower temperature (feedback loop)

Negative feedback loop

Can be used to maintain a homeostatic blood pressure

(feedback loop)

negative feedback loop

what does negative feedback loop help maintain?

homeostatic blood pressure, temperature

With enough change, an effector is triggered, By opposing the change, the effector pushes the factor back towards the set point

• shivering when you have a fever

Negative feedback loop

The change that occurs results in more of the trigger that produced the change in the first place

→ rapid change in same direction

positive feedback loop

examples of positive feedback loop

childbirth, blood clotting, protein digestion, fever, and generation of nerve signals

Diffusion

Movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.

difference between 2 points or compartments, Difference in concentration of a molecule (chemical gradient), Others: temperature, pressure, charge differences (+/-)

Gradient

A downhill gradient, favors spontaneous movement, Movement of particles, down a gradient is called diffusion, In the heart, blood flows out, “down” a positive pressure gradient

positive gradient

An uphill gradient, the resting membrane potential of a cell, particularly a neuron or muscle cell. This is the condition where the interior of the cell has a negative electrical charge relative to the extracellular fluid surrounding it.

negative gradient

Eating carbs results in high glucose concentration in the lumen of the small intestine, Glucose diffuses out of lumen into cells

concentration gradient

With this type of gradient, movement will require additional energy.

Negative gradient (uphill)

Diffusion can only occur with this type of Gradient

Positive gradient

Cells keep Na+ concentration high on the outside & low on the inside, Inward flow of Na+ is driven by a concentration and a charge gradient

Electrochemical Gradient

Electrochemical gradient

Cells keep _____ concentration ____ on the outside & ___ on the inside, Inward flow of Na+ is driven by a ______ and a _____ gradient

Na+, high, low, concentration, charge

difference in pressure between two points

pressure gradient

Diffusion & Gradient:🧂💪🏼 → 🍌🧠

move _____ ions into a muscle cell and _____ ions out of a nerve cell, redirect blood by _______

Na+, K+, vasomotion

Protons (location, charge, mass)

Nucleus, +1 charge, 1 Dalton (amu)

Electrons (location, charge, mass)

around the nucleus, -1 charge, negligible

Neutrons (location, charge, mass)

Nucleus, 0 charge, 1 Dalton (amu)

6 most common elements in living things

(CHONy baby p.s)

Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Sulfur

Elements with a variant number of neutrons

• More or fewer neutrons change the mass

Isotope

(Isotopes) more or fewer neutrons changes the ______

mass

Extra neutrons make isotopes of hydrogen _________

heavier

isotopes that are not stable

radioisotopes

charged particles with unequal numbers of protons and electrons

Ion

Ions have an unequal amount of what?

protons and electrons

salts in our body that dissociate to release ions

They can conduct an electric current & have important functions

Electrolytes

Imbalances of electrolytes can cause . . .

problems ranging from muscle cramps to heart failure

ions are important to ______, ______, and ______ physiology

bone (Calcium), nerve (sodium + potassium) and muscle (Magnesium and others)

opposites attract!

bond forms between oppositely charged ions, the force that holds them together is the electrostatic attraction

Ionic bond

form between atoms with partially filled shells by sharing electrons, shared electrons are the “force” that holds them together

Covalent bonds

electrons shared equally, no change

ex.) C-C, C-H, F-F

Non-polar covalent bonds

unequal sharing of electrons, charge is distributed unequally

ex.) C-O, C-N, H-O, P-O, Oxygen is more electronegative than C or H

Polar covalent bonds

weak attraction between a slightly positive region of a molecule and and slightly negative region of a molecule

ex.) protein, protein folding, H2O

hydrogen bond

molecules change shape or they “stick” to other molecules, does NOT form new molecules

hydrogen bond

resist changes in pH (maintain homeostasis), often weak acids

buffer

acidic pH

< pH7

Basic (alkaline) pH

> pH 7

substances that donate protons (H+) or accept electron pairs, tasting sour and having a pH below 7

acids

accept protons or donate electron pairs, often tasting bitter, feeling slippery, and having a pH above 7

bases

All of the chemical reactions that occur within an organism

metabolism

Metabolic pathways that break down molecules, releasing energy

Catabolic

Metabolic pathways that construct molecules, requiring energy.

Anabolic

List the 4 major types of organic molecules (polymers)

Carbohydrates(monosaccharides), Lipids, Proteins, Nucleic Acids

monomers for

• Carbohydrates

• Lipids

• Proteins

• Nucleic acid

monosaccharide ring

fatty acids + glycerol

amino acids

nucleotid

ribose(RNA) function

gene expression

glucose (carbohydrate monomer) function

provide quick energy

Lactose (Carbohydrate disaccharide) function

sugar in milk ( glucose + galactose )

• Energy that is stable enough to transport

Glycogen (Carbohydrate polysaccharide) function

Long-term storage

Protein monomer function

monomer = amino acid

Some are neurotransmitters (nerve cell communication)

Polypeptide (Protein Polymer) Function

neurotransmitters and hormones

Long polypeptides (proteins) are the “workers of the cell”

the hydrophobic macromolecules of life

lipids

lipids are the group into which all the _________ ____________ of life are placed

hydrophobic macromolecules

amino acids are the _________ of proteins and there are _#_ different amino acids in living things

monomers, 20

extreme conformational change that destroys a protein’s shape & function

Denaturation

unique, 3-D shape of proteins, Often crucial to protein function

Conformation

a long, continuous chain of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds

polypeptide

have a central carbon bonded to four components: an amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen atom, and a variable side chain group

general structure of amino acid

7 Functions of protein

“Sal Can Make Real Movement Called Edge”

1. Structure - Keratin in skin, hair & nails; Collagen in bones, etc.

2. Communication - Receptors

3. Membrane transport - Channels and Carriers

4. Recognition and protection - Recognition of self versus foreign; antibodies, etc.

5. Movement - cilia & flagella (protein); motor proteins; contractile proteins

6. Cell adhesion - Bind cells to form tissue ; Immune docking

7. Enzymes - Protein catalyst (catalysts speed up chemical reactions)

speeds up chemical reactions in our cells, lowers activation energy

enzyme

is a protein catalyst

enzyme

the (kinetic) energy it takes to bring two molecules together in the correct orientation and weaken old bonds

activation energy

3 dimensional “pocket” on an enzyme, where the substrate fits

active site

The molecules that are brought together are called the ______ of the enzyme

substrate

monomers of nucleic acids

nucleotides (RNA and DNA)

ATP, DNA, and RNA are examples of _______

nucleic acids

the “energy currency” of the cell

ATP monomer

important nucleotide polymers

DNA and mRNA, tRNA & rRNA

nucleic acid that stores our genetic information

DNA

3 types of RNA names + function

Messenger RNA (mRNA), Transfer RNA (tRNA), and Ribosomal RNA (rRNA

Gene Expression: Using the information in a DNA gene, to make proteins at the right time and in the right amounts

A fluid oily film (mostly lipid) – Lipids, proteins and carbohydrates

plasma membrane

Solid substances secreted by cells, found in Extracellular fluid

Extracellular matrix

Extensions of the plasma membrane (NOT microtubules), Increase a cell’s surface area 15-40X, In cells specialized for absorption, Core is actin microfilaments

Microvilli

jelly-like, semi-fluid material enclosed within the cell membrane that fills cells and suspends organelles

cytoplasm

Phospholipids - polar head (phosphate group, glycerol)

hydrophilic