memory

What does coding refer to in memory?

Coding refers to the way information is processed and stored in different memory stores.

How is information encoded in Short-Term Memory (STM)?

Information in STM is acoustically encoded, meaning it is stored based on how it sounds.

What significant finding did Baddeley (1966) demonstrate about STM and LTM?

STM relies on acoustic coding; LTM relies on semantic coding. Participants were given four lists of words:

• Acoustically similar (e.g., cat, cab, can)

• Acoustically different (e.g., dog, pit, cow)

• Semantically similar (e.g., large, big, huge)

• Semantically different (e.g., good, hot, safe)

• When asked to recall the words immediately (STM), they made more mistakes with acoustically similar words.

• When asked to recall the words after 20 minutes (LTM), they made more mistakes with semantically similar words.

• This shows STM relies on sound, and LTM relies on meaning.

What is the capacity limit of Short-Term Memory (STM)?

The capacity of STM is 5-9 items

What is chunking in relation to STM?

Chunking is the process of grouping information together to help increase STM capacity.

What is the estimated duration of information in Short-Term Memory (STM)?

STM lasts about 18-30 seconds unless rehearsed.

What key finding did Peterson & Peterson (1959) reveal about STM duration?

• Participants were given random consonant syllables (e.g., “TRG”) and a 3-digit number.

• They had to count backwards from the number (to prevent rehearsal).

• Findings:

  • After 3 seconds → 80% recall

  • After 18 seconds → Less than 10% recall

• This shows STM lasts about 18-30 seconds unless rehearsed.

What is the capacity limit of Long-Term Memory (LTM)?

LTM has an unlimited capacity.

What significant study assessed LTM duration and findings?

Bahrick et al. (1975)

• Studied 396 people who graduated up to 46 years earlier.

• Participants had to recall classmates' names from yearbook photos.

• Findings:

  • 15 years later → 90% accuracy

  • 46 years later → 70% accuracy

• This shows LTM can last a lifetime, especially for meaningful information.

What is the first stage of the Multi-Store Model of Memory (MSM)?

The first stage is the Sensory Register (SR), which takes in information from the environment.

What types of sensory memory are there?

Echoic memory (for sounds) and iconic memory (for visual images).

What happens to information in the Sensory Register if we do not pay attention?

lost by decay.

What is maintenance rehearsal in the context of STM?

Maintenance rehearsal is repeating information to keep it in STM.

What are the characteristics of Long-Term Memory (LTM)?

LTM is semantically coded, has unlimited capacity, and has a duration that can last a lifetime.

What are the strengths of the Multi-Store Model of Memory (MSM)?

It supports the differences between STM and LTM, particularly how they are acoustically and semantically coded.

What is a weakness of the MSM regarding the nature of LTM?

LTM is not a single store; it consists of episodic, semantic, and procedural memory as shown by Tulving (1985).

What weakness did Craik & Watkins (1973) highlight about rehearsal?

They suggested that elaborative rehearsal (making meaningful links) is better than merely repeating information.

How did Shallice & Warrington (1970) challenge the idea of STM?

They demonstrated that STM might not be a single store, as evidenced by studying an amnesiac patient who could recall visual but not auditory information.

What are the three types of Long-Term Memory (LTM) according to Tulving (1985)?

Episodic Memory, Semantic Memory, and Procedural Memory.

What is Episodic Memory?

A type of LTM that stores personal experiences and events, requiring conscious recall.

What is an example of Episodic Memory?

Remembering your first day at school.

What is Semantic Memory?

A type of LTM that stores general knowledge and facts about the world, also requiring conscious recall.

What is an example of Semantic Memory?

Knowing that the capital of France is Paris.

What is Procedural Memory?

A type of LTM that stores how to perform tasks and skills, usually requiring unconscious recall.

What is an example of Procedural Memory?

Driving a car.

What evidence supports the existence of different types of LTM?

Neuroimaging studies show different brain areas activate for episodic and semantic memories.

What did the case study of Clive Wearing demonstrate?

It showed that while episodic memory can be lost, procedural and semantic memories can remain intact.

According to Cohen and Squire (1980), how is LTM divided?

Into Declarative Memory (episodic and semantic) and Non-Declarative Memory (procedural).

What is a criticism of Tulving's three-part model of LTM?

Some researchers argue that episodic and semantic memories may overlap, complicating their separation.

What is the Working Memory Model (WMM)?

A model proposed by Baddeley & Hitch (1974) suggesting that Short-Term Memory (STM) consists of multiple components.

What are the components of the Working Memory Model (WMM)?

Central Executive, Phonological Loop, Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad, and Episodic Buffer.

What is the function of the Central Executive?

To control attention and allocate tasks to the other components of the WMM.

What is the role of the Phonological Loop?

To process auditory information through the phonological store and articulatory process.

What does the Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad process?

Visual and spatial information, including shapes and layouts.

What evidence supports the Working Memory Model (WMM)?

Case studies like KF show separate visual and verbal memory systems.

What is a criticism of the Central Executive in the WMM?

It lacks clarity and definition, suggesting it may consist of multiple components.

Why is the WMM criticized in terms of Long-Term Memory?

It does not account for how information is transferred to Long-Term Memory.

What is Interference in memory?

Interference is when one memory disrupts the recall of another, leading to forgetting or distorted recall.

What are the two types of interference?

Proactive Interference (PI) and Retroactive Interference (RI).

What is Proactive Interference (PI)?

When old memories interfere with the recall of new memories.

Give an example of Proactive Interference.

Struggling to remember how to drive an automatic car after years of driving a manual.

What is Retroactive Interference (RI)?

When new memories interfere with the recall of old memories.

Give an example of Retroactive Interference.

Learning a new phone number and forgetting the old one.

What did McGeoch & McDonald (1931) find regarding interference?

Participants who learned similar information (synonyms) had the worst recall, indicating greater interference.

What conclusion did Baddeley & Hitch (1977) reach from their rugby players study?

Forgetting is influenced by interference from new games rather than just the passage of time.

What is a criticism of the interference theory regarding realism?

Many studies use artificial stimuli like word lists, which may not reflect real-life memory use.

What is Retrieval Failure?

Retrieval failure happens when information in LTM cannot be accessed due to missing cues.

What does Tulving's Encoding Specificity Principle (ESP) state?

For successful retrieval, cues present during learning must also be present during recall.

What are the two types of retrieval failure?

Context-Dependent Forgetting and State-Dependent Forgetting.

Give an example of Context-Dependent Forgetting.

Forgetting information in an exam room that was learned in a bedroom.

What was the finding of Godden & Baddeley (1975) regarding context?

Recall is better when the learning and recall conditions match; 40% lower recall occurs when they do not match.

What is State-Dependent Forgetting?

Forgetting occurs when the internal state at recall is different from the state during encoding.

What did Carter & Cassaday (1998) find in their study?

Better recall occurs when internal states match during learning and recall.

What did Eysenck (2010) suggest about retrieval failure?

Retrieval failure is a more common cause of forgetting than interference in everyday life.

What is a criticism of the retrieval failure theory regarding real-world application?

Real-life context changes aren't as extreme as those in studies, limiting the theory's generalizability.

What is circular reasoning in the context of the Encoding Specificity Principle?

Assuming cues help retrieval without being able to test whether they were encoded at learning, lacking falsifiability.

What defines Interference in memory?

Interference occurs when one memory disrupts the recall of another.

What is Retroactive Interference?

New information interferes with the recall of old information.

Provide an example of Retroactive Interference.

Learning similar word lists interferes with recalling previously learned words.

What is Proactive Interference?

Old information disrupts the learning of new information.

What did McGeoch & McDonald (1931) find about interference?

More forgetting occurs when learning similar words, such as synonyms.

What was the conclusion from Baddeley & Hitch (1977) regarding memory recall?

Players' recall of past games was affected by the number of games played since, rather than the time elapsed.

What is a support for the interference theory?

Highly controlled lab experiments lend validity to the findings.

What is a criticism of the interference theory?

Studies often use artificial stimuli and short recall times, lacking real-life application.

How does Retrieval Failure relate to forgetting?

Forgetting occurs when cues present during learning are absent during recall, following Tulving's Encoding Specificity Principle.

What is Context-Dependent Forgetting?

Forgetting occurs when the external environment differs between learning and recall.

Provide an example of Context-Dependent Forgetting.

Godden & Baddeley's study showed better recall for divers when learning and recalling in the same environment.

What is State-Dependent Forgetting?

Forgetting occurs when the internal state (emotion or physiological state) differs between learning and recall.

Give an example of State-Dependent Forgetting.

Carter & Cassaday's study found better recall when participants were in the same physiological state as when learning.

What is a support for Retrieval Failure theory?

Well-controlled lab studies provide strong backing, often supported by real-life scenarios.

What is a criticism of Retrieval Failure theory?

Findings lack ecological validity due to extreme conditions that may not reflect everyday memory.

What is the impact of Misleading Information on Eyewitness Testimony (EWT)?

Misleading information, such as leading questions, can distort memory recall.

How did Loftus & Palmer (1974) demonstrate the impact of misleading information?

Different wording in questions influenced participants' speed estimates and recall accuracy.

What did Gabbert et al. (2003) find regarding post-event discussions?

71% of participants mistakenly recalled details discussed with others.

What is a support for the misleading information effect on EWT?

Strong lab evidence supports the notion of memory distortion due to misleading information.

What is a criticism of studies on misleading information?

They lack mundane realism, often simulating situations rather than reflecting real-life witnessing.

How does anxiety affect Eyewitness Testimony (EWT)?

Anxiety can have both negative and positive impacts on memory recall depending on the level of anxiety.

What did Johnson & Scott (1976) find about high-anxiety situations?

Participants exposed to high anxiety (bloody knife) had lower recall accuracy due to weapon focus.

What positive impact of anxiety was noted by Yuille & Cutshall (1986)?

Witnesses of a real shooting demonstrated high recall accuracy even five months later.

What does the Yerkes-Dodson Law suggest about memory accuracy?

moderate anxiety can enhance recall, while extreme anxiety decreases it.

What is a support for the impact of anxiety on EWT?

Real-life crime studies indicate that high-stress situations can still result in high

What is the Cognitive Interview (CI)?

A method of interviewing eyewitnesses designed to improve recall accuracy based on psychological principles of memory.

What are the four stages of the Cognitive Interview?

1. Report Everything 2. Reinstate the Context 3. Change the Perspective 4. Reverse the Order.

What does the 'Report Everything' stage of the CI entail?

Encourages witnesses to recall all details, even those that seem irrelevant.

How does 'Reinstate the Context' help in the CI?

It prompts the witness to recall the environment at the time of the event, reducing context-dependent forgetting.

What is the purpose of 'Change the Perspective' in the CI?

To ask witnesses to recall events from different perspectives, reducing the impact of their schemas on memory.

What does 'Reverse the Order' in the CI involve?

Recalling events in a non-chronological order to prevent lying and reduce schema influence.

What is one strength of the Cognitive Interview?

It has been shown to significantly improve the recall of correct information from witnesses.

What did Kebbel and Wagstaff (1997) point out as a criticism of the CI?

The CI is time-consuming and requires specialized training, which may not be feasible for all police forces.

What did Kohnken et al. (1999) find regarding the CI?

While the CI increases correct recall, it also leads to a 61% increase in incorrect details, potentially reducing reliability.