Bio 204 Cumulative Final

Properties of living things

1. made up of cells

2. reproduce and replicate

3. Information encoded in DNA or RNA

4. Metabolism

5. Evolution

Homeostasis

maintaining a balanced internal environment which is significantly different from the external environment

proteins

-polymers of amino acids

-contains peptide bonds

nucleic acids

polymers of nucleotides

carbohydrates

polymers of sugars

lipids

hydrocarbon chains; phospholipids

features of prokaryotes

-small, single-celled
-lack a nucleus
-circular DNA

-organelles are ribosomes + cytoplasm
-cilia and flagella for movement

features of eukaryotes

-big
-uni or multicellular
-membrane bound organelles
-nucleus containing DNA

prokaryotes domains

bacteria and archaea

eukaryotes domains

eukarya

eukaryotes kingdoms

Animalia, plantae, fungi, protist

ribosomes

-site of protein synthesis

-perform translation

nucleus

-stores genetic material

-site of transcription

chloroplasts

-site of photosynthesis

-thylakoids

-stroma

mitochondria

-site of cellular respiration

-makes ATP and produces energy

ER + Golgi

made of phospholipid membranes

monophyletic group

one-snip rule

homoplasy

similar trait in different species without a shared common ancestor

homologous traits

-similar traits in different species but share a common ancestor

parsimony analysis

choosing a phylogenetic tree with the fewest number of evolutionary changes from a set of specific traits

How to tell relatedness in phylogenetic trees

count the number of nodes, do not pay attention to branching

endosymbiotic theory

explains the bacterial origin of chloroplasts and mitochondria from engulfment from a photo-eukaryote which formed organelles from membrane folding

serial endosymbiosis

engulfment up to 4 laters of membranes

cyanobacteria

-photoautotrophs

-contain chlorophyll

-put oxygen into the earths atmosphere leading to explosion of aerobic organisms

protista

paraphyletic group

algae

fungi

-closely related to animals

-hyphae absorbs nutrients

-extracellular digestion

-cells walls made of the polysaccharide chitin

cause of osmosis

difference in solute concentration where water flows from areas of low solute concentration to areas of high solute concentration in order to eliminate the gradient

What maintains osmosis

selective permeability of molecules, as water can flow through the membrane but solute particles cannot

uses of water gradients

-transport of water up roots in plants

-maintains cell volume in plants

cause of ion gradients

active transport pumps like the sodium potassium pump

how are ion gradients maintained

selective permeability, as charged ions cannot flow through the membrane without assistance from an ion channel

uses of ion gradients

active transport

causes of gas gradients

differences in partial pressure of gases such as high O2 in the lungs but low in the blood or high CO2 in tissues but low in blood

how are gas gradients maintained

breathing/ventilation, blood circulation, and cellular respiration

uses of gas gradients

-transport O2 into the blood and CO2 out

-cellular respiration for ATP production

cell differentiation and gradients

-transcription factors bind to turn on and off genes based on gradient and concentrations, such as bifold in fruit flies

bicoid gradient

high concentration in anterior and low in the posterior encodes for the formation of the head and abdomen regions in fruit flies

Animalia

-multicellular eukaryotes

-no cell walls

-ingestive heterotrophs

Closest relative to animals

chanoflagellates, a protist

Five factors of relatedness in animals

1. Number of tissue layers

2. Symmetry and cephalization

3. Presence of a coelom

4. Protostome vs duetrostome

5. Segmentation

Features of chordata

1. gill slits

2. dorsal hollow nerve cord

3. notochord

4. muscular post anal tail

features of mammals

-lactation

-hair

-lower single jaw bone

-endothermic

-4 chambered heart

orders of mammals

-eutherians

-marsupials

-monotremes

eutherians

mammals with a. long gestation period and well developed placenta

Central dogma

process of DNA to RNA (transcription) then mRNA to protein (translation)

proteins involved in transcription

RNA polymerase and transcription factors

function of RNA polymerase

unwind the DNA to read the non-coding strand 3’ to 5’ and then build mRNA strand 5’ to 3’

silent mutation

codon changes but amino acid sequence does not

nonsense mutation

premature stop codon

missense mutation

a change in a singular codon that changes the amino acid

frameshift mutation

an insertion or deletion of a singular nucleotide which causes a shift downstream