FINAL EXAM

Digestive Process

Ingestion → mechanical digestion → propulsion, chemical digestion → absorption → defecation

Digestive Organs

Gastrointestinal (GI) tract includes mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small & large intestine, anus. Accessory organs are teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, pancreas.

Quadrant Digestive Organs

Liver & gallbladder (right hypochondriac), stomach (epigastric), diaphragm (left hypochondriac), ascending colon (right lumbar), transverse colon & small intestine (umbilical), descending colon (left lumbar), cecum & appendix (right iliac), urinary bladder (hypogastric), initial sigmoid colon (left iliac).

Peritoneum Terminology

Retroperitoneal (behind peritoneum); Intraperitoneal organs include stomach, spleen, liver, parts of duodenum, jejunum, ileum, transverse & sigmoid colon.

Mesenteries

Greater omentum (hangs from stomach), Lesser omentum (connects stomach to liver), Mesentery proper (suspends small intestine), Mesocolon (attaches large intestine).

Greater Omentum

Contains stomach.

Oral Cavity Accessories

Salivary glands, teeth, tongue.

Teeth Types

Incisors (gnawing), Canines (puncturing), Premolars (crushing), Molars (grinding).

Tooth Anatomy

Enamel, dentin, cementum, pulp.

Saliva Functions

Moistens, cleanses, lubricates, aids digestion, antibacterial, stimulates taste receptors.

GI Tract Path

Mouth → pharynx → esophagus → stomach → small intestine → large intestine → anal canal.

Salivary Glands

Parotid (secretes amylase), Submandibular (majority of saliva), Sublingual.

Digestive Tract Layers

Mucosa, Submucosa, Muscularis, Serosa.

Villi Functions

Increase surface area; Lacteals absorb fats.

MALT

Mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue with T & B cells, plasma cells, macrophages.

Smooth Muscle

Long contraction, low energy use, gap junctions, innervation by varicosities.

Esophagus Function

Passes food to stomach; Cardiac sphincter prevents regurgitation.

Stomach Regions

Cardiac, Fundus, Body, Pylorus; Layers:Mucosa, Submucosa, Muscularis, Serosa.

Gastric Pits

Indentations in stomach with mucous neck, parietal, chief, and G-cells.

Small Intestine Functions

Digestion, absorption; Duodenum, Jejunum, Ileum, Ileocecal valve.

Duodenum Chemicals

CCK, brush border enzymes.

Small Intestine Histology

Circular folds, villi, microvilli increase absorption area.

Ileocecal Valve

Regulates passage to large intestine.

Large Intestine Functions

Absorption, compaction, storage; Intestinal flora aids digestion.

Large Intestine Structures

Cecum, Colon, Rectum, Anal canal.

Anal Sphincters

Internal (autonomic), External (somatic).

Liver Functions

Bile production, detoxification, nutrient storage, blood protein synthesis, phagocytosis.

Liver Microanatomy

Lobules with hepatic cords, sinusoids, Kupffer cells.

Liver Vessels

Hepatic veins, common bile duct.

Nutrient Pathway

Digestive tract → hepatic portal system → liver.

Gallbladder Function

Stores & concentrates bile; Biliary apparatus flow:liver → gallbladder → duodenum.

Pancreas Secretions

Exocrine pancreatic juices.

Pancreas Cells

Acinar cells (enzymes), ET cells (bicarbonate).

Pancreatic Juice Components

Enzymes, bicarbonate.

Macula densa

Specialized epithelial cells found in the distal convoluted tubule

Trigone

Posterior inferior triangular area of the bladder defined by two ureteral openings and the urethral opening, important for allowing urine to enter the bladder and preventing backflow

Urinary tract structures and functions

Ureters carry urine from kidneys to the bladder, the bladder stores urine, and the urethra allows urine to pass out of the body

Urethral sphincters control

Internal urethral sphincter is under autonomic control, while the external urethral sphincter is under somatic nervous system control

Male urethra segments

Prostatic urethra, membranous urethra, and penile urethra; transports both urine and semen

Male vs

Male urethra is longer and transports both reproductive and urinary fluids, while the female urethra is shorter and functions solely for urine transport

Salt molecule pathway

Trace from blood to urine through nephron and urinary tract parts

Testes temperature regulation

Scrotum maintains a cooler temperature for the testes, aided by the cremaster and dartos muscles

Spermatic cord structures

Includes vas deferens, testicular artery and vein, cremaster muscle, and autonomic nerves

Testes functions

Production of sperm and androgens, primarily testosterone

Testicular cells

Spermatogonia, Sertoli cells, Leydig cells, and myoid cells with their respective functions

Sperm pathway

From germ cell to outside the body through the seminiferous tubules, epididymis, deferent duct, vas deferens, ejaculatory duct, and urethra

Sperm storage and maturation

Occurs in the epididymis, aiding in sperm maturation and storage

Vas deferens structure and function

Thick smooth muscle layer that carries sperm from the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct

Ejaculatory duct characteristics

Junction of seminal vesicle and vas deferens, conducting sperm and seminal fluid to the urethra

Male urethra structure and transport

Prostatic, membranous, and spongy urethra parts for transporting semen and urine

Vasectomy process and outcome

Involves cutting or tying the vas deferens, preventing sperm release but allowing ejaculation of seminal fluid

Seminal fluid components

Secretions from seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbourethral glands that nourish sperm and neutralize vaginal acidity

Semen composition

Combination of seminal fluid and sperm released during ejaculation

Penis parts

Root, body, glans, and erectile bodies with their respective functions

Erection mechanism

Achieved through vascular and nervous responses leading to increased blood flow to the penis

Spermatogenesis and meiosis correlation

Process of sperm cell production from germ cells in the testes involving meiosis and hormonal control

Ovaries function

Produce oocytes and estrogen, with accessory organs including fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, clitoris, and mammary glands

Ovarian ligament role

Suspends the ovary from the uterus to hold it in place

Ovary segments and follicle structure

Outer cortex and inner medulla segments, with ovarian follicles containing oocytes surrounded by follicle cells

Follicular cells function

Responsible for the maturation and release of oocytes during the menstrual cycle

Ovulation process and regulation

Release of an egg from the ovary during the menstrual cycle, regulated by LH and FSH hormones

Corpus luteum function

Remnants of the follicle that secrete progesterone and estrogen to prepare the uterus for pregnancy

Corpus albicans formation

Result of the regression of the corpus luteum, controlled by the absence of fertilization

Oogenesis and meiosis events

Monthly process involving meiosis I and sometimes meiosis II, with two arrest points and hormonal regulation

Uterus structures and functions

Body, cervix, and fundus segments with endometrial layers, supporting embryo development and labor

Uterine wall layers

Perimetrium, myometrium, and endometrium with the functional layer changing during the uterine cycle

Endocrine System Basics

Contains ductless endocrine glands with extensive vasculature that secrete hormones into the bloodstream, sharing the function of homeostasis regulation with the nervous system.

Hormone Specificity

Hormones can only affect target cells with specific receptors, leading to responses only in cells or organs with those receptors.

Nervous vs

Nervous system transmits fast, short-lived signals through neurons, while the endocrine system uses hormones for slower, longer-lasting responses with widespread effects.

Hormone Classes

Amino acid-based, peptides, proteins, and steroids are the main classes of hormones, with water-soluble peptides and lipid-soluble steroids.

Endocrine Response Stimuli

Hormone release is regulated by negative feedback loops to maintain homeostasis, while positive feedback loops amplify hormone release.

Endocrine Glands

Hypothalamus, pituitary, pineal, thyroid, parathyroid, thymus, pancreas, adrenal glands, and gonads are key endocrine glands.

Pituitary Lobes

Anterior pituitary releases tropic hormones, while the posterior pituitary secretes oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone.

Pituitary Master Gland

The pituitary gland is considered the master gland due to its control over other endocrine glands.

Hypophyseal Portal System

The system connects the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary, allowing the quick exchange of releasing and inhibiting factors.

Pituitary Lobes Names

Anterior (adenohypophysis) and posterior (neurohypophysis) lobes.

Anterior Pituitary Hormones

Thyroid stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, follicle stimulating hormone, prolactin, adrenocorticotropic hormone, growth hormone, and melanocyte stimulating hormone.

Posterior Pituitary Hormones

Oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone.

Thyroid Hormones

Follicular cells produce thyroid hormone, while parafollicular cells secrete calcitonin, which lowers blood calcium levels.

Parathyroid Hormone Effects

Parathyroid hormone increases blood calcium levels by acting on bones, intestines, and kidneys.

Feedback Loops

Negative feedback reduces change effects to maintain balance, while positive feedback amplifies change effects.

Negative Feedback Operation

Output of a system reduces or dampens processes leading to that output, resulting in less output.

Adrenal Gland Regions

Adrenal cortex secretes mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and gonadocorticoids, while the adrenal medulla secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine.

Pancreatic Islets

Pancreatic acini secrete pancreatic juice, while the islets of Langerhans contain alpha cells (glucagon), beta cells (insulin), delta cells (somatostatin), and P cells (pancreatic polypeptide).

Other Hormone-Producing Organs

Kidney, heart, GI tract, ovaries, and testes produce various hormones.

Pineal Gland and Thymus

Pineal gland releases melatonin, while the thymus secretes thymopoietin and thymosin.

Diabetes Types

Type 1 lacks insulin production, while Type 2 involves insulin resistance.

Diabetes Mellitus vs

Mellitus is due to insulin deficiency, while insipidus is a water conservation issue.

Pituitary Disorders

Anterior pituitary disorders include hypopituitarism, Cushing's disease, and acromegaly, while posterior disorders involve diabetes insipidus and oxytocin deficiency.

Labor Induction

Pitocin, a synthetic form of oxytocin, is administered to induce labor.