FINAL EXAM

FINAL EXAM: CH. 26, 27, 28, 20

Ch. 26 Digestive System

1. What are the steps in the digestive process?

Ingestion → mechanical digestion → propulsion, chemical digestion → absorption → defecation

• Mechanical and chemical digestion

Chewing by mouth
Churning by stomach
Segmentation (small intestine)

• Absorption

• Peristalsis

Adjacent segments of alimentary tract organs alternately contract and relax, moving food along tract distally

• Segmentation

Nonadjacent segments of alimentary tract organs alt contract & relax, moving food forward then backward ; food is mixed and slowly propelled

• Defecation

• Ingestion

2. What are the digestive organs? What are the accessory organs for digestion?

Gastrointestinal (GI) tract
- Mouth
- Pharynx (throat)
- Esophagus
- Stomach
- Small & large intestine
- Anus
Accessory organs
- Teeth
- Tongue
- Salivary glands
- Liver
- Gallbladder
- Pancreas

3. Which digestive organs would you find in the different quadrants?

Right hypochondriac region → liver & gallbladder
Epigastric region → stomach
Left hypochondriac → diaphragm
Right lumbar region → ascending colon of large intestine
Umbilical region → transverse colon of large intestine & small intestine
Left lumbar → descending colon of large intestine
Right iliac (inguinal) region → cecum & appendix
Hypogastric region → urinary bladder
Left iliac → initial part of sigmoid colon

4. What is terminology for whether an organ is in peritoneum or behind it? Which organs would

you find intraperitoneal?

Retroperitoneal → lie against posterior cavity wall; behind peritoneum
Intraperitoneal organs = stomach, spleen, liver, 1st & 4th parts of duodenum, jejunum, ileum, transverse & sigmoid colon

5. Where do the mesenteries reside? What are the different mesenteries and what do they attach to?

Mesenteries reside in the abdomen; it attached intestines to wall of abdomen & holds them in place
4 diff mesenteries
- Greater omentum → hangs from stomach
- Lesser omentum → connects stomach to liver
- Mesentery proper → suspends SI from posterior wall
- Mesocolon → attaches LI to posterior wall

6. What might be found in the greater omentum?

stomach

7. What accessory structures would you find in the oral cavity?

Salivary glands
Teeth
Tongue

8. What are the names of the different teeth and their general function?

Incisors → shaped like chisel for gnawing
Canines → pointed tips for puncturing & tearing
Premolars → flat crowns w/ prominent ridges for crushing & grinding
Molars → adapted for crushing & grinding

9. What components make up the anatomy of the teeth?

enamel, dentin, cementum & pulp

10. What are the functions of saliva?

Moistens ingested materials
Moistens, cleanses, & lubricates oral structures
Chemical digestion
Antibacterial action
Dissolves materials to stimulate taste receptors

11. Can you trace the various parts of the GI tract going from oral cavity to anus?

Mouth → pharynx → esophagus → stomach → small intestine → large intestine → anal canal

12. What is the name of the salivary glands? Which produces more than saliva and which secretes amylase?

Parotid salivary glands → secretes 25-30% of total saliva but also secretes amylase (begins chemical digestion of starch)
Submandibular salivary glands → produces majority of saliva (60-70%)
Sublingual salivary glands

13. What are the layers of the digestive tract and what is their structure?

FOUR TUNICS
- Mucosa → simple columnar ET & lamina propia CT
  - Contains MALT (T & B cells, plasma cells & macrophages)
  - Contains lacteals and may have villi
- Submucosa → lymphatic ducts, glands, blood vessels, nerves
- Muscularis → inner circular layer and outer longitudinal layer of smooth muscle
  - Circular layer constricts lumen to form sphincters
  - Longitudinal layer shorts tube
- Serosa

14. What are the functions of the villi? What is the function of lacteals?

Villi = increases surface area
Lacteals = lymph capillaries for fat absorption

15. What is MALT and where would you find this?

MALT = mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue
Found in T cells, B cells, plasma cells, and macrophages

16. What are the characteristics of smooth muscle? What is the difference between single and

multiunit smooth muscles? Where is the neurotransmitter released from to smooth muscle?

Smooth muscle = long contraction time, low use of E, most use gap junctions for rhythmic contraction, little mitochondria, innervation by varicosities
Single unit
- Few fibers innervated
- Communication thru gap junction
Multi-unit innervation
- Each fiber innervated individual (i.e. iris & arrector pili)

17. What is the function of the esophagus? Where does it pass through the diaphragm? What is the function of the cardiac sphincter?

Esophagus = tubular muscular passageway; carries food & liq from mouth to stomach
Passes thru esophageal hiatus of diaphragm
Cardiac sphincter at junction of esophagus & stomach; prevents regurgitation into esophagus

18. What are the regions and layers of the stomach?

Layers of lining
- Mucosa
- Submucosa
- Muscularis
- Serosa
Layers of muscle (in muscularis layer)
- Outer Longitudinal
- Circular (middle)
- Inner oblique
Regions
- Cardiac region
- Fundus
- Body
- Pylorus + pyloric sphincter

19. How are the gastric pits arranged? What cells are found here and what do these cells produce and secrete?

Located in stomach mucosa
Are indentations in stomach made up of columnar ET
Gastric glands w/ diff cells and produces/secretes
- Mucous neck cells → acidic mucin
- Parietal cells → HCl & intrinsic factor (Vit B12)
- Chief cells → pepsinogen (enzyme for protein digestion)
- G-cells (enteroendocrine) → gastrin (hormone that stimulates other gastric glands)

20. What are the functions of the different parts of the SI?

Small intestine → finishes chemical digestion process, absorbs majority of nutrients; takes ~12hrs to digest & absorb food
Parts of SI
- Duodenum → glands in submucosa secrete alkaline mucus
  - Receives secretions from liver, gallbladder, and pancreas
- Jejunum → primary region of digestion & absorption
- Ileum → finishes absorption of nutrients
  - Ileocecal valve regulates passage into LI

21. What chemicals would you find in the duodenum?

CCK – stimulates release of bile from gallbladder
Sucrase, lactase & maltase = brush border enzymes

22. Can you describe the histology of the small intestines?

Mucosa & submucosa have circular folds and folds have villi, villi have microvilli ⇒ all serve to increase surface area for absorption

23. What regulates passage into the LI?

Ileocecal valve

24. What are the functions of LI? What are the functions of intestinal flora?

Large intestine functions
- Absorbs fluids & ions
- Compacts indigestible wastes into poop
- Stores poop until defacation
Intestinal flora functions
- Over 700 spcs of bacteria
- Produce vitamins (K, B12)
- Facilitate water absorption
- Digest plant matter & creates gas

25. What are the structures of the LI?

Shorter than SI but larger in diameter
Cecum (appendix)
Colon (ascending, transverse, descending, & sigmoid)
Rectum
Anal canal

26. Which of the anal sphincters would be under autonomic control? Which would be under somatic nervous system control?

Internal & external anal sphincters control defecation
- Internal → smooth muscle; autonomic/involuntary
- External → skeletal muscle; somatic nervous system/ voluntary

27. What are the functions of the liver?

Produces bile & emulsifies liq
Detoxifies
Interconversion of nutrients
Stores nutrients
Synthesis of blood proteins
Phagocytosis

28. Can you describe the microanatomy of the liver?

Consists of hexagon-shaped lobules
Each corner = portal triad
- Branches of: hepatic duct, h portal vein, and h artery
Center is central vein
- Unite to form hepatic veins and rains into IVC
Lobules contain hepatic cords
- Consists of hepatocytes & bile canaliculi
Heptic sinusoids separate cords
- Mixed blood from HPV and HA
- Kupffer cells (phagocytes)

29. What are the different vessels that feed or leave the liver? What is the flow of blood and bile through the liver?

Central vein → hepatic vein & inferior vena cava
Bile canaliculi → common bile duct

30. What is the pathway of nutrients picked up at digestive tract to and through the liver?

Nutrients from digestive tract pass thru hepatic portal system to liver, where they are processed and returned to the heart

31. What is the function of the gallbladder? What is the flow through the biliary apparatus?

Collects & concentrates bile from liver
Stimulated to contract by CCK from SI after eating fatty meal
Ducts transport bile from liver to gallbladder and duodenum
- R/L hepatic duct → common hepatic duct → cystic duct → gallbladder → cystic duct → common bile duct → duodenum

32. What does the pancreas produce and secrete?

Exocrine functions involve secreting pancreatic juices into duodenum via pancreatic ducts

33. What is the function of the acinar cells and ET cells of the pancreas?

Makes at least 22 kinds of enzymes, stored in zymogen granules
ETs of small pancreatic ducts produces bicarbonate-rich fluid to neutralize acid

34. What would you find in the pancreatic juice?

Digestive enzymes
- Trypsin → protein digestion
- Lipase → lipid digestion
- Amylase → starch digestion
Bicarbonate
- Buffer
- Neutralizes acidity from stomach

Ch. 27 Urinary System

1. What are the functions of the urinary system?

Removes waste from blood
produce/store/excrete urine
Regulate blood vol
Regulate erythrocyte production
- Secretes erythropoeitin (EPO)

2. What are the structures of the urinary system?

Kidneys
Ureters
Urinary bladder
Urethra

3. Can you identify the different structures and regions of the kidney?

Hilum = concave medial border
Regions
- Outer renal cortex & inner renal medulla
- Renal columns = projections of cortex into medulla
  - Renal pyramids
  - Renal papilla (tip)

4. Can you trace blood flow through the kidney? Both arterial and venous sides.

Aorta → renal artery → segmental artery → interlobar artery → arcuate artery → cortical radiate artery → afferent arteriole → glomerulus → efferent arteriole
From efferent arteriole → peritubular capillaries and vasa recta → cortical radiate vein → arcuate vein → interlobar vein → renal vein → inferior vena cava

5. Which vessel feeds the glomerulus and which drains the glomerulus?

Afferent arteriole feeds to glomerulus
Efferent arteriole drains glomerulus

6. What are the peritubular and vas recta capillaries? How do these differ?

Peritubular capillaries (located in cortex)
Vasa recta (located in medulla)

7. What is filtration, tubular reabsorption, and tubular secretion?

Filtration → fluid/solute pushed out of blood
Tubular reabsorption → fluid/solute pulled back into blood
Tubular secretion → add’l solute added to urine from blood

8. What are the stretches of the nephron tubule and their functions? Where does reabsorption

and secretion take place?

Nephron is composed of renal corpuscle and renal tubule
Reabsorption takes place in proximal tubule
Secretion occurs in peritubular capillaries

9. How is the renal corpuscle arranged? What is the arrangement of the filtration membrane?

Located in renal cortex
Composed of glomerulus and glomerular (Bowman’s) capsule
Filtration mmb
- Fenestrated endothelium
- Fused basement mmb
- Foot process and filtration slit
- Podocytes

10. What are the different types of nephrons and how do they differ?

Glomerular capsule: parietal layer
Glomerular capsule: visceral layer
Proximal convoluted tubule cells
Distal convoluted tubule cells
Nephron loop cells
Collecting duct cells
Cortical vs juxtamedullary nephrons
- Cortical → found in renal cortex
- Juxtamedullary → found in renal cortex close to renal medulla

11. What makes up the juxtaglomerular apparatus and what is it’s function?

Juxtaglomerular (granular) cells → secretes renin
Macula densa → specialized ET cells found in distal convoluted tubule

12. What is the trigone and why is it important?

Posterior Inferior triangular area of bladder
- Defined by two ureteral openings and urethral opening
Allow urine to enter bladder but prevent it from backing up from bladder into ureters

13. What structures does the urinary tract consist of and what are their functions?

Ureters
- Carries urine from kidnesy to bladder
Urinary bladder
- Stores urine
- Lined w/ transitional ET
- Smooth muscle = detrusor muscle
Urethra
- Entrance to urethra = internal urethral orifice
- Tube that allows urine to pass out of body and from the bladder

14. Which sphincters of the urethra would be under autonomic control and which would be under somatic nervous system control?

Internal urethral sphincter (smooth muscle) ; autonomic/involuntary
External urethral sphincter (skeletal) ; somatic nervous system control/voluntary

15. What are the segments of the male urethra? What is transported through it?

3 segments
- Prostatic urethra
- Membranous urethra
- Penile urethra
Transports both urine and semen (both urinary & reproductive)

16. How does male and female urethra differ?

Male urethra is much longer than female urethra
Female urethra is single functioning for transporting urine; male is reproductive and urinary

17. Can you trace a molecule of salt from blood into urine? Name the parts of nephron and urinary tract?

Ch. 28: Reproductive System

1. How is temperature regulated in the testes and why?

Scrotum has cooler temp; encloses testes
Cremaster muscle → raise/lower testes for temp regulation
Dartos muscles → wrinkles to increase thickness to retain heat

2. What are the structures of the spermatic cord?

Function: suspends testes from body & passes thru inguinal ligament via deep & superficial inguinal rings
Structures include:
- Vas deferens
- Testisticular artery & vein
- Cremaster muscle
- Autonomic nerves

3. What is an inguinal hernia? Where does it occur?

Increased intra-abdominal pressure pushed SI thru inguinal ring ; bulge that occurs in groin region
Occurs due to weakening of muscles in lower abdomen

4. What is the function of the testes?

Production of sperm AND production/secretion of androgens (primarily testosterone)

5. What 4 cells are found in the testes and what are their functions?

Spermatogonia = dividing germ cells continuously produce sperm
- As moving towards lumen, forms primary & secondary spermatocytes, spermatids, and sperm
- Gamete-forming cells that line the basement membrane inside the seminiferous tubules
  - They are the least mature cells in the testis and can differentiate into other cell types throughout adulthood
Sertoli (sustentocytes) cells = non-dividing support cells
- FUNCTION ⇒ assist w/ sperm development
  - Forms blood-testis barrier
  - Convey nutrients to spermatogenic cells
  - Phagocytize cytoplasm shed during spermatogenesis
  - Secrete testicular fluid into lumen for mvmt
  - Supporting cells that nourish and help develop sperm cells during spermatogenesis
Interstitial (Leydig) cells = located in spaces between seminiferous tubules
- FUNCTION ⇒ produce androgens (testosterone)
  - Secretion of testosterone is controlled by luteinizing hormone (LH)
  - Hormone-secreting cells that produce testosterone, the primary male sex hormone
Myoid cells = smooth muscle-like cells
- FUNCTION ⇒ contract & push sperm & testicular fluid thru tubules
- Smooth muscle cells that surround the seminiferous tubules and propel sperm to the epididymis

6. Can you trace the pathway from a sperm starting as a germ cell to outside the body?

Seminiferous tubules → straight tubules → rete testis → efferent ductules
- Sperm not fully functional at this point
Sperm cells start as germ cells in the seminiferous tubules of the testes, where they mature and undergo meiosis and cellular differentiation. The sperm cells then travel through the following structures to leave the body:
- Epididymis: A coiled structure that stores immature sperm for several days
- Deferent duct: Sperm is expelled from the epididymis into the deferent duct, then travels up the spermatic cord into the pelvic cavity
- Vas deferens: Joins with the seminal vesicle to form the ejaculatory duct
- Ejaculatory duct: Passes through the prostate and empties into the urethra
- Urethra: Sperm is pushed out of the body through the urethra during ejaculation
- Vagina: Sperm cells are ejaculated into the female reproductive tract, where they can find an oocyte to fertilize

7. Where are sperm stored and where do they mature?

Epididymis – forms from merging seminiferous tubules
- FUNCTION ⇒ stores sperm & aids in sperm maturation
Journey takes 20 days and can be stored for several months

8. What is the structure of the vas deferens? What is the vas deferens function?

= thick smooth muscle layer, helps to propel sperm out to urethra
FUNCTION ⇒ carries sperm from epididymis to ejaculatory duct

9. What are the characteristics of the ejaculatory duct?

= the junction of seminal vesicle and ampulla of vas deferens
Located w/in prostate gland
FUNCTION ⇒ conducts sperm and seminal fluid to urethra

10. What is the structure of the male urethra? What is transported through here?

Urethra FUNCTION ⇒ transport semen & urine out of body
Structures:
- Prostatic urethra
  - Widest part, located inside prostate gland
  - Carries seminal fluid thru prostate to produce semen
- Membranous urethra
  - Shortest & least distensible part of urethra
  - Transports fluids thru pelvic floor
- Spongy/ penile urethra
  - Longest section of urethra & extends entire length of penis

11. What takes place during a vasectomy? Can a man still ejaculate after if so what would it contain?

Vas deferens (tubes that carry sperm from testicles to urethra) get cut and tied or cauterized
Sometimes possible to reverse
Prevents sperm from leaving body thru penis but ejaculation still possible
- After Sx, sperm are reabsorbed into body & do not come out during ejaculation
- Still contains seminal fluid & mucus but no more sperm

12. What is the make of seminal fluid?

3 glands secrete fluids that mix w/ sperm
Secretions nourish sperm & neutralize acidity of vagina
- Seminal vesicles
- Prostate gland
- Bulbourethral glands

13. What are the different male reproductive accessory glands? What do each produce?

Seminal vesicles (paired glands)
- Secretes viscous whitish yellow alkaline fluid, contains:
  - Fructose & other nutrients
  - Prostaglandins (contract uterus)
  - Substance to suppress immune response
  - Sperm motility
  - Clotting factors for semen
Prostate gland
- Secrets directly into prostatic urethra
- Contains:
  - Lubricant
  - Nutrients for sperm
  - Antibacterial protein
  - Prostatic-specific antigen (PSA = enzyme that helps liquify semen)
Bulbourethral (Cowper’s) glands
- Secretes mucin for lubrication
  - Enters spongy urethra at base of penis

14. What is the make-up of semen?

Seminal fluid + sperm = semen
- Called ejaculate when released during intercourse
  - 3-5mL ejaculate contains 200-500 mil sperm

15. What are the parts of the penis?

Root → internal, attached to portion of penis
Body (shaft) → elongated portion of penis
- Dorsal veins drain blood from penis
Glans → the tip
- Surrounds external urethral orifice
- Glans covered by prepuce (foreskin)
3 parallel, cylindrical erectile bodies:
- Paired corpus cavernosa → terminate at distal shaft of penis
- Single corpus spongiosum → surrounds penile (spongy) urethra, continues to glans

16. How is an erection achieved?

17. Can you correlate spermatogenesis with meiosis? When are the cells diploid when are haploid? What controls this process?

Spermatogenesis = process that produces sperm cells (AKA mature spermatozoa) from germ cells in seminiferous tubules of testes ; continuous process beginning at puberty and continues throughout life
Completion of reduction division to haploid cells
Begins w/ diploid spermatogonium → divides mitotically → produce two diploid primary spermatoctyes → undergoes meiosis I to produce two haploid secondary spermatocytes
Process controlled by hormones, cell-cell interactions, and gene expression
- Hormones = testosterone & FSH

18. What do the ovaries do? What are the female accessory reproductive organs?

FUNCTION ⇒produce oocytes (eggs) and estrogen
Accessory organs: fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, clitoris, mammary glands

19. What holds ovaries in place?

Ovarian ligament, suspends ovary from uterus

20. What are the segments of the ovary? Where are ovarian follicles found and what is the structure of the follicle?

Segments = outer cortex & inner medulla
Ovarian follicles found w/in cortex, which consist of oocyte surrounded by follicle cells
- Follicle cells secrete estrogen

21. What are follicular cells responsible for?

Several types of follicles based on stages of development
- Primordial
- Primary
- Secondary
- Tertiary (releases oocyte AKA ovulation)
Responsible for maturation & release of oocytes (eggs) during menstrual cycle

22. What happens during ovulation? What regulates ovulation?

Ovulation = egg released from ovary during menstrual cycle
- Follicle swells and bursts and LH hormone causes most mature egg to be released
- Fimbriae sweeps across burst follicle and picks up egg
- Muscle contractions in fallopian tube pushes egg onward uterus
- Egg either meets sperm for fertilization or arrives in uterus unfertilized and is absorbed back into body
LH and FSH regulates ovulation, produced in pituitary gland
- Promotes ovulation and stimulate ovaries to produce estrogen & progesterone

23. What is corpus luteum? What is its function?

Following ovulation, remnants of follicle become corpus luteum
- FUNCTION ⇒ secrets progesterone & estrogen
  - Stimulates growth of uterine endometrium
Temporary organ that forms in ovary during each menstrual cycle to help prepare uterus for pregnancy

24. What is corpus albican? What controls when this is formed?

Corpus luteum regresses in to corpus albican
- If no fertilization, happens immediately
- If fertilization, CL lasts several weeks until placenta forms

25. Can you match oogenesis with meiotic events? When is meiosis arrested? Does meiosis II always take place?

Each month from puberty to menopause, Meiosis I (completed by one primary oocyte each month in response to LH surge)
Meiosis II takes place sometimes, occurs in ovaries after sperm enters secondary oocyte; only completes if fertilization occurs
Meiosis arrests twice. Main arrest occurs during diplotene stage of prophase 1, lasts until puberty
- 2nd arrest occurs after ovulation during metaphase 2 and lasts for much shorter time than first arrest

26. What are the structures of the uterus? What is the function of the uterus?

3 segments: body, cervix, & fundus
3 tissue layers: endometrium, myometrium & perimetrium
FUNCTIONS ⇒ site of implantation ; supports & protects developing embryo/fetus, ejects fetus during labor

27. What is the structure of the uterine wall? Which layer changes?

Perimetrium → outermost layer of CT
Myometrium → thick, middle tunic composed of smooth muscle
Endometrium → mucosa composed of simple columnar ET
- Basal layer → permanent layer closed to myometrium
- Functional layer → sheds during menstruation, changes in thickness

28. What are the phases of the uterine cycle? What changes take place? Do all phase occur every menstrual cycle?

3 phases: menstruation, proliferation, & secretory
- Describes changes in endometrial lining of uterus
Hormone lvls change: estrogen high during proliferative phase then progesterone high during secretory phase

29. Where does the egg usually get fertilized?

In lateral part of fallopian tubes
Takes pre-embryo ~3 days to reach uterus and implant

30. What are the sections and parts of the fallopian tube? Does the fallopian directly connect to the ovary?

3 parts: isthmus (closest to uterus), ampulla (curved part, most common site for fertilization), and infundibulum
No, fimbriae of infundibulum reaches out toward ovaries

31. What structures does the vulva consist of? What is the arrangement of these structures?

Vulva = external female genitalia
Consists of:
- Mons pubis
- Labia minora & majora
- Clitoris
- Vestibular glands

32. What are the structures of the breast?

Mammary gland → produce & secrete milk
Nipple → contains multiple openings
Areola → pigmented ring of skin surrounding nipple, contains areolar gland

Ch 20: Endocrine System

1. What are the basics of the endocrine system and what is their function? What other system do they share this function with?

Contains endocrine glands (are ductless)
All endocrine organs have extensive vasculature
FUNCTION ⇒ secrete hormones into bloodstream
Share function w/ nervous system to bring about homeostasis

2. Why don’t all cells respond to a certain hormone?

Hormones can only affect target cells or target hormones → have receptors for specific hormone
Cells or organs w/o receptors for specific hormone do not respond to that hormone

3. What are the differences between nervous and endocrine system (rate of response, duration,

and range of response)?

Nervous system → electrical impulses carry messages to diff organs of body ; transmitted thru neurons
- Fast signal transmission due to interconnected neurons, BUT short lived functions w/ localized responses
Endocrine system → uses hormones (chemical signals) to carry commands to destined organs and cells ; travel thru bloodstreams
- Slow signal transmission due to hormones traveling thru bloodstream BUT responses last longer w/ widespread response usually noticed in many organs

4. What are the classes of hormones?

Amino acid-based
- Modified amino acids
- Peptides and Proteins
  - Most hormones are peptides or proteins
    - Range from small peptides (only 3AA) to larger proteins called glycoproteins
    - Transport in blood
      - Water soluble and dissolves easily in ECF for transport
- Steroids (lipid molecules)
  - Derived from cholesterol
  - Made in adrenal cortex ⇒ cortisol, aldosterone and androgen
  - Made in gonads ⇒ estrogen, progesterone, androgens
  - Made in placenta

5. What are the different stimuli for endocrine response?

Regulation of hormone release negative feedback loop
- Results in certain parameters (i.e. blood glucose, calcium lvls) are kept w/in homeostatic range
- Once hormone’s effect has restored parameter, hormone release will shut off
Feedback loops control hormone release positive feedback loop
- Positive feedback = non-homeostatic
- Results in amplified release of hormone

6. What are the endocrine glands of the body?

1) hypothalamus = master controller of endocrine system
2) pituitary gland (hypophysis)
3) pineal gland
4) thyroid gland & parathyroid gland
5) thymus
6) pancreas
7) adrenal glands
8) gonads

7. What are the different lobes of the pituitary? How do they differ? Which releases tropic

Hormones?

Divided into anterior and posterior lobes
Anterior (adenohypophysis) → releases tropic hormones
- Contains pars tuberalis, pars intermedia, and pars distalis
- secretion regulated by hormones from hypothalamus
  - ⇒ release hormones & inhibiting hormones
  - ⇒ travel via blood to pituitary gland
- Hormones of anterior pituitary
  - Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
    - Acts on thyroid gland
  - Luteinizing hormone (LH)
    - Acts on ovaries & testes
    - Stimulates ovulation, estrogen & progesterone production
    - Stimulates androgen (testosterone) production
  - Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
    - Acts on ovaries & testes
      - Stimulates growth of ovarian follicles
      - Stimulates sperm production
  - Prolactin (PRL)
    - Acts on mammary glands & testes
      - Stimulates milk production
      - Enhances sensitivity of testes to LH
  - Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
    - Acts on adrenal cortex
      - Stimulates production of corticosteroid hormones
  - Growth hormone (GH)
    - Acts on all body tissues
      - Stimulates increased growth & metabolism of target cells
  - Melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH)
    - Acts on melanocytes
      - Stimulates melanin production (tanning)
      - Also suppresses appetite
Posterior (neurohypophysis)
- Contains infundibulum and pars nervosa
- Secretes 2 hormones
  - 1) Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
    - Acts on kidneys & blood vessels
      - Stimulates water retention & vasoconstriction
      - Hyposecretion causes diabetes insipidus
  - 2) Oxytocin
    - Acts on uterus & mammary glands
      - Stimulates uterine contractions & milk ejection
  - Oxytocin & vasopressin = non-tropic hormones

8. Why is the pituitary considered the master gland?

Bc it’s a pea-sized gland in the brain that produces and releases hormones that regulate many bodily functions; it controls the function of many other endocrine glands

9. Can you explain the hypophyseal portal system? What is released there and from where?

Hypothalamus secretes releasing and inhibiting factors (tropic hormones/factors)
- Acts on cells of anterior pituitary
Portal system = capillary bed pools into another capillary bed thru veins
Tropic factors (hormones) act on other endocrine organs
A network of blood vessels that connects the hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary gland at the base of the brain
Main function = quickly transport & exchange hormones between two glands

10. What are the other names for the lobes of the pituitary?

11. What are the hormones of the anterior pituitary and what do they act on?

12. What are the hormones of the posterior pituitary and what are their target cells and actions?

13. What which cells are responsible for production of thyroid hormone and which cells are

responsible for calcitonin? What are the actions of these hormones? What is the hormone that

has the opposite effect of calcitonin?

Follicular cells produce thyroid hormone
- Involves in metabolic rate and growth development
Parafollicular cells secrete calcitonin
- Regulates blood Ca2+ lvls by decreasing them
- Works by opposing action of parathyroid hormone, which means that it acts to reduce Ca2+ lvls in the blood
- Stimulates osteoclasts, kidney cells, brain cells

14. What are the effects of parathyroid hormone? Where is the parathyroid located?

Parathyroid = small glands embedded on posterior thyroid gland
Secretes parathyroid hormone (PTH)
- Increases blood Ca2+ by stimulating osteoblasts & stromal cells in bones
- Increases Ca2+ absorption ins small intestine
- Decreases Ca2+ loss from kidneys

15. How do negative and positive feedback loops differ?

Negative feedback → reduces effect of change and helps maintain balance
- Reaction result is reduced to bring system back to stable state
Positive feedback → increases effect of change and produces instability
- Reaction result is amplified and makes it occur more quickly (increases change/output)

16. How does a negative feedback loop operate

Most biological feedback systems are negative feedback systems
Occurs when system’s output acts to reduce or dampen processes that lead to output of that system, resulting in less output

17. What are the regions of the adrenal gland? What hormones are produced in each?

Located on superior border of kidneys, divided functionally into outer adrenal cortex and inner adrenal medulla
Adrenal cortex
- Secretes
  - mineralocorticoids (i.e. Aldosterone)
  - Glucocorticoids
  - Gonadocorticoids
Adrenal medulla
- Consists of chromaffin cells (are modified cells of sympathetic NS)
- Secretes epinephrine & norepinephrine
- Contributes to fight or flight response (prolongs effect of NS)

18. What are pancreatic acini responsible for? What makes up the islet of Langerhans? Which cells produce the different hormones (just worry about the 2 we talked about)?

Pancreas = both an exocrine and endocrine gland
98-99% of pancreatic cells are pancreatic acini
- Responsible for secreting pancreatic juice into GI tract (exocrine function)
Remaining are pancreatic islets (small clusters of endocrine cells)
- Hormones of islet cells regulate lvl of blood glucose
- Islet of Langerhans cells consist of:
  - Alpha cells → secretes glucagon
    - Increases blood glucose
  - Beta cells → insulin
    - Decreases blood glucose
  - Detla cells → somatostatin
  - P (F) cells → pancreatic polypeptide

19. Be able to recognize the other organs (last slide) that produce hormones but don’t need to

know functions of these?

Kidney → calcitriol & erythropoietin
Heart → atriopeptin
GI tract → various hormones related to digestion
Ovaries → estrogen, progesterone, & inhibin
Testes → androgens (mostly testosterone) and inhibin

20. For the endocrine glands discussed in lecture know which hormones are produced here, what the target of the hormone is, and main effect of hormone.

Pineal gland
- Roof of diencephalon
- Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) responds to lack of light to stimulate release of melatonin
Thymus
- Secretes thymopoietin & thymosin
- T-cell (lymphocyte) training ground

21. Distinguish btwn Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes mellitus

Diabetes = increased blood sugar lvls
Type 1 → little or no insulin produced by B cells
- Usually juvenile onset, autoimmune and treated w/ injections + diet modifications
Type 2 → insulin resistance
- Usually adult onset
- Occurs slowly overtime, often w/ obesity
- Treated primarily w/ diet & exercise; also meds if needed
Gestational → pregnancy hormones block action of insulin

22. Distinguish btwn diabetes mellitus and diabets insipidus

Diabetes mellitus → caused by body not being able to produce insulin it needs
Diabetes insipidus → disease where kidneys are unable to conserve water ; does not affect blood sugar lvls
- Treatment ⇒ synthetic hormone (desmopressin) that replaces body’s vasopressin
Called diabetes bc both cause increased thirst & frequent urination

23. Discuss disorders of the anterior and posterior pituitary

Pituitary disorders = too much or too little hormone production
Anterior disorder → hypopituitarism (partial or complete deficiency of pituitary hormones)
- Cushing’s disease
- Acromegaly
Posterior disorder → diabetes insipidus and oxytocin deficiency disorders
- Hypersecretion
- Hypersecretion

24. What would be administered to induce labor?

Give synthetic form of oxytocin called Pitocin thru IV to induce labor
Oxytocin = hormone that body releases during labor to help uterus contract