HIST 107 Final Exam – Term Definitions

A collection of flashcards covering key terms and definitions from early civilizations to the Age of Exploration.

Hammurabi’s Code

Who/when: Hammurabi was the king of Babylon in Mesopotamia who ruled from about 1792–1750 BCE and created one of the earliest written legal codes. 

What: The laws were carved onto stone pillars and applied throughout his kingdom. 

Why: The code established strict punishments and reinforced social hierarchy. Its significance is that it represents an early attempt of governments trying to create standardized laws to maintain order in complex societies.

Sargon the Great

Who/where/when: Sargon the Great founded one of the first empires in Mesopotamia around 2350 BCE, known as the Akkadian empire . 

What: He united many Sumerian city-states through military conquest and established centralized authority. His empire stretched across much of the Fertile Crescent. 

Why: His significance is that he demonstrated how military power and administration could unite multiple societies under a single empire.

Ma’at

What: Ma’at was the Egyptian concept of cosmic order, truth, and justice that governed both society and the universe. 

Who: Ancient Egyptian pharaohs were responsible for maintaining Ma’at in order to ensure harmony and stability in Egypt. 

Why: This concept influenced Egyptian law, religion, and governance. Its significance lies in how religion and political authority were closely connected in Egyptian civilization.

House of Judgement

What/who: the Egyptian belief in the judgment of the dead in the afterlife. According to Egyptian religion, a person's heart would be weighed against the feather of Ma’at to determine whether they lived a moral life. 

Why: This belief was described in texts such as the Book of the Dead. Its significance is that it reflects Egyptian ideas about morality, justice, and the importance of maintaining order in life.

Hieroglyphics

What: Hieroglyphics were the writing system used in ancient Egypt, consisting of symbols representing sounds and ideas. 

When: This system was developed around 3000 BCE and was used primarily by priests and scribes. 

Why:  Its significance is that writing allowed Egyptian civilization to preserve knowledge, religious beliefs, and government records.

Vedas

Sacred texts of early Hinduism that formed the foundation of Hindu beliefs and social structure, from c. 1500–500 BCE in India.

Brahmin

The priestly class in the Indian caste system from the Vedic period onward.

Rajas

Tribal leaders or kings in early India during the Vedic period.

Cyrus the Great

Founder of the Persian Empire who reigned from c. 559–530 BCE, known for his tolerant rule and effective administration.

Satrapies

Administrative provinces of the Persian Empire that allowed efficient governance.

Duke of Zhou

Chinese political leader in the 11th century BCE who helped stabilize early Zhou rule.

Hellenism

The spread of Greek culture after Alexander the Great, starting in the 4th century BCE.

Daoism

Chinese philosophy that emphasizes harmony with nature, originating around the 6th century BCE.

'Jen' (Ren)

Confucian concept of compassion and moral virtue developed around the 5th century BCE.

Four Noble Truths

Core teachings of Buddhism about suffering, articulated around the 5th century BCE in India.

Nirvana

State of liberation from suffering in Buddhism, representing the ultimate spiritual goal.

Sixth Parters

Debt-bound farmers in Athens before 594 BCE, whose plight led to reforms.

Solon

Athenian reformer who reduced class conflict and laid groundwork for democracy around 594 BCE.

Delian League

Alliance of Greek city-states led by Athens formed in 478 BCE.

Punic Wars

Wars between Rome and Carthage from 264–146 BCE that established Rome as the dominant power.

Pax Romana

Period of peace in the Roman Empire from 27 BCE to 180 CE.

Patrician

Elite class in Rome that controlled political power.

Plebeian Secession

Protest by common people for rights starting in 494 BCE.

Latifundia

Large Roman estates using slave labor, predominant in the late Republic.

Tiberius Gracchus

Roman reformer who attempted land redistribution, active in 133 BCE.

Proscriptions

Lists of enemies targeted by the state in 1st century BCE Rome.

First Triumvirate

Alliance of Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus established around 60 BCE.

Mandate of Heaven

Belief that rulers govern with divine approval, prevalent during the Zhou Dynasty.

Qin Shi Huang

First emperor of unified China, reigning from 221–210 BCE.

Xiongnu

Nomadic group that posed a threat to China during the Han Dynasty.

Emperor Wu

Han emperor who expanded territory, reigning from 141–87 BCE.

Ban Zhao

Female scholar and writer in 1st century CE China.

Yuan Ts’ai

Confucian scholar who wrote moral guides during the Song Dynasty.

Mandarins

Government officials selected through examinations in Imperial China.

Civil Service Examination

Exam system for selecting officials that began in the Han Dynasty.

Five Pillars of Islam

Core practices of Islam established in the 7th century CE.

Ummah

Community of Muslims in Arabia during the 7th century CE.

People of the Book

Jews and Christians recognized under Islam during the Islamic Empire.

Caliph

Leader of the Muslim community, emerging after 632 CE.

Pauline Universalism

The idea that Christianity is meant for all people, originating in the 1st century CE.

Constantine the Great

Roman emperor who legalized Christianity, ruling from 306–337 CE.

St. Anthony

Early Christian monk from the 3rd to 4th century CE who inspired monasticism.

Rule of St. Benedict

Guidelines for monastic life formulated in the 6th century CE.

Charlemagne

King of the Franks who revived the empire in Western Europe from 768–814 CE.

Vikings

Scandinavian raiders and traders active from the 8th to 11th centuries.

Manorialism

Economic system based on estates in medieval Europe.

Vassalage

Loyalty relationship between nobles in medieval Europe.

Silk Roads

Trade network across Eurasia beginning around 200 BCE.

Entrepôts

Trade hubs where goods are exchanged during the medieval and early modern periods.

Pax Mongolia

Period of stability under Mongol rule in the 13th to 14th centuries.

Timbuktu

West African trade and learning center in the 14th century.

Empire of Mali

West African empire that controlled significant trade from the 13th to 14th centuries.

Kilwa

East African trading city that connected Indian Ocean trade from the 12th to 15th centuries.

Ibn Battuta

Muslim traveler and writer documenting global connections in the 14th century.

Zheng He

Chinese admiral leading maritime voyages from 1405 to 1433.

Yongle Emperor

Ming ruler who supported expansion from 1402 to 1424.

Zhu Yuanzhang

Founder of the Ming Dynasty from 1368.

Hernan Cortés

Spanish conqueror of the Aztecs from 1519 to 1521.

Francisco Pizarro

Conqueror of the Inca Empire in the 1530s.

Ferdinand and Isabella

Spanish monarchs who funded exploration in the late 1400s.

Henry the Navigator

Portuguese sponsor of exploration in the 15th century.

Lateen Sail

Triangular sail that improved navigation in the medieval period.

Treaty of Tordesillas

Agreement from 1494 dividing newly discovered lands between Spain and Portugal.

Encomienda

Spanish labor system exploiting Indigenous people in the 1500s.

Council of the Indies

Spanish governing body for colonial administration in the 16th century.

Bartolomé de las Casas

Priest who criticized the colonization process in the 1500s.