AP Psych Unit 3 Terms

Chronological Development

Development measured according to age and the sequence of physical, cognitive, and social changes people experience over time

Lifespan Development

Study of how people grow and change physically, mentally, emotionally, and socially from infancy through old age

Stability and Change

Idea that some characteristics stay relatively stable throughout life while others change over time.

Example: personality may stay somewhat stable while intelligence or interests can develop

Nature and Nurture

Debate about whether development is influenced more by genetics and biology (nature) or environment and experiences (nurture). Modern psychology recognizes both interact together

Continuous Development

View that development happens gradually and smoothly over time, like slowly increasing vocabulary or height

Discontinuous Development

View that development occurs in distinct stages with noticeable changes between them.

Example: Piaget's stages of cognitive development

Teratogens

Harmful substances or environmental influences that can damage a developing fetus during pregnancy.

Example: alcohol, nicotine, or certain drugs

Fine Motor Coordination

Ability to make small, precise movements using hands and fingers.

Example: writing, drawing, or buttoning a shirt

Gross Motor Coordination

Ability to control large body movements using major muscles.

Example: walking, jumping, or running

Maturation

Natural biological growth processes that unfold according to genetic instructions rather than experience alone

Reflexes

Automatic, unlearned responses present at birth that help infants survive.

Example: sucking reflex.

Rooting Reflex

Infant reflex where a baby turns its head toward something touching its cheek, helping it find food

Visual Cliff

Experimental setup used to test depth perception in infants and animals by creating the illusion of a steep drop

Critical Periods

Specific times during development when certain experiences must occur for normal development to happen properly

Sensitive Periods

Developmental periods when individuals are especially responsive to certain experiences, although learning can still occur later

Imprinting

Form of attachment in some animals where newborns quickly form bonds with the first moving object they see after birth

Growth Spurt

Sudden period of rapid physical growth, especially common during puberty

Puberty

Developmental stage when hormonal changes lead to sexual maturity and major physical changes

Primary Sex Characteristics

Reproductive organs and body structures directly involved in reproduction.

Example: ovaries and testes

Secondary Sex Characteristics

Physical traits that develop during puberty but are not directly involved in reproduction.

Example: deeper voice or body hair

Menarche

First menstrual period in females, marking the beginning of reproductive capability

Spermarche

First ejaculation in males, signaling reproductive maturity

Menopause

Natural ending of menstruation and reproductive ability, usually occurring in middle adulthood

Schemas

Mental frameworks or organized patterns of knowledge used to understand and interpret information

Assimilation

Interpreting new experiences using existing schemas.

Example: calling every four-legged animal a "dog."

Accommodation

Adjusting or creating schemas when new information does not fit existing understanding.

Example: learning that a cat is different from a dog

Sensorimotor Stage

Piaget's first stage (birth-2 years) where infants learn through senses and physical actions

Object Permanence

Understanding that objects still exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched

Preoperational Stage

Piaget's stage (2-7 years) where children use language and mental images but struggle with logic

Mental Symbols

Using words, images, or objects to represent something else.

Example: pretending a stick is a sword

Conservation

Understanding that quantity remains the same even when appearance changes.

Example: knowing water amount stays equal when poured into a taller glass

Reversibility

Understanding that actions can be mentally undone or reversed

Animism

Belief that nonliving objects have feelings or intentions.

Example: thinking a toy is "sad."

Egocentrism

Difficulty seeing situations from another person's perspective

Theory of Mind

Understanding that other people have different thoughts, feelings, beliefs, and perspectives

Concrete Operational Stage

Piaget's stage (7-11 years) where children begin logical thinking about concrete situations and objects

Systematic Thinking

Organized step-by-step logical thinking used to solve problems

Formal Operational Stage

Piaget's final stage (around age 12+) involving advanced reasoning and abstract thought

Abstract Thinking

Ability to think about ideas, concepts, and possibilities beyond direct experiences

Hypothetical Thinking

Ability to imagine possibilities and predict outcomes using "what if" reasoning

Scaffolding

Temporary support provided by a more knowledgeable person to help someone learn a task

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

Range between what a learner can do alone and what they can do with guidance or support

Crystallized Intelligence

Knowledge and skills gained through education and life experience. Usually stays stable or increases with age

Fluid Intelligence

Ability to think quickly, reason, and solve new problems without relying on prior knowledge

Dementia

Serious decline in memory, reasoning, and cognitive functioning that interferes with daily life

Phonemes

The smallest distinct sound units in a language. Phonemes combine to form words.

Example: The sounds "b," "a," and "t" in the word "bat."

Morphemes

The smallest units of language that carry meaning. Morphemes can be whole words or parts of words.

Example: "Un-" and "-ed" are morphemes

Semantics

The study of meaning in language, including the meanings of words and sentences

Grammar

The system of rules in a language that determines how words are used and organized

Syntax

The rules for arranging words into correct sentences.

Example: "The dog chased the cat" follows proper syntax in English

Cooing

Early stage of language development where infants make vowel-like sounds, usually around 2 months old

Babbling

Stage of language development where infants begin repeating consonant-vowel combinations.

Example: Saying "ba-ba" or "da-da."

One-Word Stage

Stage of language development where a child communicates using single words to express complete ideas.

Example: Saying "milk" to mean "I want milk."

Telegraphic Speech

Early speech stage where children use short, simple sentences containing mostly essential words.

Example: "Want cookie" or "Mommy go work."

Overgeneralization of Language Rules

Applying grammar rules too broadly to words that are exceptions.

Example: Saying "goed" instead of "went."

Ecological Systems Theory

Theory stating that development is influenced by multiple environmental systems, from close relationships to larger cultural influences

Microsystem

The immediate environment a person directly interacts with, such as family, friends, and school

Mesosystem

The connections and interactions between different parts of a person's microsystem.

Example: Communication between parents and teachers

Exosystem

External environments that indirectly affect a person's development.

Example: A parent's workplace affecting family life

Macrosystem

The larger cultural values, laws, customs, and beliefs that influence development

Chronosystem

The influence of time and life changes on development, including historical events and personal experiences

Authoritarian Parenting

Parenting style that is strict, controlling, and focused on obedience with little warmth or flexibility

Authoritative Parenting

Parenting style that is both demanding and supportive, combining rules with warmth and communication. Often linked to positive outcomes

Permissive Parenting

Parenting style that is very lenient and warm with few rules or expectations

Attachment Styles

Patterns of emotional bonds and relationships formed between children and caregivers

Secure Attachment

Healthy attachment style where children feel safe, trust caregivers, and are comforted when caregivers return

Insecure Attachment

Attachment style where children lack consistent trust or security with caregivers

Avoidant Attachment

Insecure attachment style where children avoid closeness and show little distress when caregivers leave

Anxious Attachment

Insecure attachment style where children become very distressed when caregivers leave and are difficult to comfort

Disorganized Attachment

Insecure attachment style involving inconsistent, confused, or fearful behavior toward caregivers

Temperament

A person's natural emotional and behavioral style present from early life.

Example: Being naturally calm, shy, or energetic

Separation Anxiety

Distress experienced when separated from a caregiver or attachment figure

Parallel Play

Play where children play near each other but do not directly interact

Pretend Play

Imaginative play where children act out roles or situations.

Example: Pretending to be a doctor or teacher

Imaginary Audience

Belief common in adolescence that others are constantly watching and judging them

Personal Fable

Adolescent belief that their experiences and feelings are unique and special

Social Clock

Cultural expectations about the timing of major life events.

Example: Expectations about when people should marry or start careers

Emerging Adulthood

Developmental period from the late teens through twenties involving identity exploration and transition into adulthood

Stage Theory of Psychosocial Development (Erikson)

Theory proposing that people move through eight stages of social and emotional conflicts across the lifespan

Trust and Mistrust

First stage where infants learn whether caregivers are reliable and supportive

Autonomy and Shame and Doubt

Stage where young children develop independence and self-control

Initiative and Guilt

Stage where children begin taking initiative and exploring leadership or activities

Industry and Inferiority

Stage where children develop competence through school and achievements

Identity and Role Confusion

Adolescent stage focused on developing a personal identity and sense of self

Intimacy and Isolation

Young adult stage focused on forming close relationships and emotional connections

Generativity and Stagnation

Adult stage focused on contributing to society and helping future generations

Integrity and Despair

Late adulthood stage where people reflect on their lives with either satisfaction or regret

Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)

Stressful or traumatic childhood experiences that can negatively affect later health and development

Achievement (Adolescent Development)

Identity status where a person has explored options and committed to an identity

Diffusion (Adolescent Development)

Identity status where a person has neither explored nor committed to an identity

Foreclosure (Adolescent Development)

Identity status where a person commits to an identity without exploring alternatives

Moratorium (Adolescent Development)

Identity status where a person is actively exploring identities but has not committed yet

Racial/Ethnic Identity

A person's sense of belonging and connection to a racial or ethnic group

Sexual Orientation

A person's emotional, romantic, or sexual attraction to others

Religious Identity

A person's beliefs and sense of connection to a religion or spiritual tradition

Occupational Identity

A person's sense of self related to career goals and work roles

Familial Identity

A person's sense of self based on family relationships and roles

Possible Selves

Ideas about what a person might become, hopes to become, or fears becoming in the future

Behavioral Perspective

Psychological approach focusing on observable behaviors and how they are learned through interactions with the environment

Classical Conditioning

Learning process where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus that naturally produces a response.

Example: A dog learning to salivate at the sound of a bell associated with food