exam 2

What are the two main types of carbohydrates?

Simple carbohydrates (sugars) and complex carbohydrates.

What are examples of simple carbohydrates?

Fruit, honey, table sugar, milk.

What are examples of complex carbohydrates?

Grains, legumes, potatoes, vegetables.

What are the three main polysaccharides and their roles?

Starch (storage form of glucose in plants), glycogen (storage form of glucose in animals), fiber (structural part of plants).

What are the two types of fiber and how do they differ?

Soluble fiber dissolves in water and helps lower cholesterol; insoluble fiber does not dissolve and adds bulk to stool.

What are the health benefits of fiber?

Improves digestion, lowers cholesterol, controls blood glucose, promotes fullness, reduces constipation, lowers risk of heart disease, diabetes, colon cancer.

Where does carbohydrate digestion begin?

In the mouth with salivary amylase.

What is the final product of carbohydrate digestion?

Monosaccharides, mainly glucose.

What hormones regulate blood glucose levels?

Insulin (lowers blood glucose) and glucagon (raises blood glucose).

Describe Type 1 Diabetes.

Pancreas does not produce insulin due to autoimmune destruction of β-cells; treated with insulin injections.

Describe Type 2 Diabetes.

Body cells become resistant to insulin; often linked to obesity and managed with diet and exercise.

What is hyperglycemia?

High blood glucose; occurs when insulin is insufficient or ineffective.

What is hypoglycemia?

Low blood glucose; occurs from too much insulin or skipping meals.

What are the health risks of too much sugar consumption?

Weight gain, tooth decay, increased triglycerides, insulin resistance.

What are the health benefits of high-fiber diets?

Reduced risk of heart disease, type 2 diabetes, constipation.

What is the difference between whole grains and refined grains?

Whole grains contain bran, germ, and endosperm; refined grains only contain endosperm.

What are the three main types of fatty acids?

Saturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated fatty acids.

What are cis and trans fats?

Cis fats have hydrogens on the same side of the double bond, while trans fats have hydrogens on opposite sides.

What are essential fatty acids?

Omega-3 and Omega-6 fatty acids that must be obtained through food.

What are triglycerides made of?

1 glycerol and 3 fatty acids.

What are the four main types of lipoproteins?

Chylomicrons, VLDL, LDL, HDL.

Why is LDL considered 'bad'?

High LDL deposits cholesterol in arteries, leading to plaque buildup.

What is the #1 cause of death in U.S. men and women?

Cardiovascular disease (CVD).

What leads to atherosclerosis?

High LDL, high blood pressure, smoking, and poor diet.

What atoms make up amino acids?

Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen.

How many amino acids are essential for adults?

9 essential amino acids.

What are proteins made of?

Long chains of amino acids joined by peptide bonds.

What is denaturation of proteins?

Unfolding of proteins due to heat, acid, or heavy metals.

What are major functions of proteins in the body?

Build muscle, act as enzymes, hormones, transport substances, and maintain fluid and acid-base balance.

Where does protein digestion begin?

In the stomach.

What enzymes digest protein?

Pepsin in the stomach and trypsin, chymotrypsin, and peptidases in the small intestine.

What are the final products of protein digestion?

Individual amino acids and some di- and tripeptides.

What is PEM (Protein-Energy Malnutrition)?

Deficiency of protein and/or calories, leading to conditions like marasmus and kwashiorkor.

What percentage of daily calories should come from protein?

10–35% of total daily calories.

What’s the difference between high- and low-quality proteins?

High-quality proteins contain all essential amino acids; low-quality proteins are deficient in one or more.

What are complementary proteins?

Two or more incomplete proteins combined to provide all essential amino acids.

What are the risks of too much protein?

Dehydration, kidney strain, heart disease.