Honeybees 2

In all honeybee subspecies except the Cape honeybee, what is the fate of a colony that loses its queen and fails to replace her?

The colony is doomed to perish.

By what specific process can Cape honeybee workers produce diploid eggs?

Thelytokus parthenogenesis

During thelytokus parthenogenesis in Cape honeybees, how are diploid eggs formed at the cellular level?

Cells undergoing meiosis fuse together in a manner similar to gametes.

What two types of female bees can develop from a Cape honeybee worker's diploid egg?

Workers or queens

In a queenless Cape honeybee colony, a new queen can be produced from an egg laid by either the old queen or a _____.

Worker

What is the leading hypothesis for why thelytokus parthenogenesis evolved specifically in the Cape honeybee?

High winds in the Cape region cause frequent queen loss during mating flights.

In normal honeybee hives of any subspecies, what behavior is used to manage worker-laid eggs?

Worker policing

In a queenless Cape honeybee colony, why are the offspring produced by a single laying worker considered a clone?

They are all genetically identical to one another.

What is the primary objective of Cape honeybee clones destroying eggs laid by other workers within the same colony?

To maximize "territory" within the colony for their specific clonal lineage.

What is the long-term survival prospect of a queenless Cape colony that remains in a "laying worker" state?

It will eventually dwindle and die because worker egg-laying capacity cannot sustain the birth rate.

How does the Cape honeybee act as a social parasite?

Workers invade other colonies to reproduce clones that the host colony is forced to raise.

What is the primary cause of colony failure in a hive parasitized by Cape honeybee workers?

The burden of raising parasitic offspring leads to a shortage of foragers and resources.

What historical event in the early 1990s is known as the "capensis calamity"?

The parasitism of over 30,000 African honeybee colonies by Cape honeybees introduced to northern South Africa.

Why are Cape honeybees unable to provide resources for the host hive when they act as social parasites in northern South Africa?

They are very poor foragers when outside of their native southern South African geographic region.

According to the source material, what is the primary factor responsible for the global spread of honeybee pests and parasites?

Human movement of Western honeybee colonies.

Which vertebrate is identified as a major predator of hives within the native range of Africa and Southwest Asia?

The honey badger

To what taxonomic order do Small Hive Beetles (SHB) belong?

Order $\textit{Coleoptera}$

Where do Small Hive Beetle (SHB) larvae go to pupate after leaving the hive?

They enter the soil.

What is the specific diet of Small Hive Beetle (SHB) larvae within the hive?

Honeybee eggs, brood, honey, and pollen.

What characteristic odor is produced when Small Hive Beetles contaminate honey with their feces?

The smell of rotting oranges

Which pesticide is commonly used for the chemical control of Small Hive Beetles in brood boxes?

Coumaphos (CheckMite+)

In Small Hive Beetle management, what is the purpose of using parasitic soil nematodes?

To kill SHB larvae and pupae in the soil.

To what taxonomic order do "bee killers" ($\textit{Mallophora}$) belong?

Order $\textit{Diptera}$

How do "bee killers" ($\textit{Mallophora}$) capture their prey?

They catch foraging bees on the wing.

In which U.S. state are losses from "bee killers" ($\textit{Mallophora}$) considered severe?

Florida

Under what environmental condition is "robbing" behavior by honeybees most common?

In the fall, when resources are scarce.

What physical damage occurs to the hive during a robbing event by alien honeybees?

The comb is torn apart as the honey is stripped.

To what taxonomic order do wax moths belong?

Order $\textit{Lepidoptera}$

What part of the hive do wax moth larvae consume?

Beeswax comb

Besides weak colonies, where are wax moths a major problem for beekeepers?

Stored honeybee equipment, especially stored honeycomb.

What is a common non-chemical method used to kill wax moths in stored equipment?

Freezing

Where in the honeybee's body does the tracheal mite ($\textit{Acarapis woodi}$) reside?

In the tracheal tubes of the thorax and abdomen.

How do tracheal mites weaken their honeybee hosts?

They puncture the tracheal wall to drink circulatory fluid.

What is the characteristic physical symptom involving the wings in bees heavily infested with tracheal mites?

Unhooked "K" wings

What chemical is used to treat tracheal mites, specifically in the product Mite-A-Thol?

Menthol

Which strain of honeybee is noted for being less affected by tracheal mites?

Buckfast bees

Identify the two relevant species of Varroa mites.

$\textit{Varroa destructor}$ and $\textit{V. jacobsoni}$

From which host species did the Varroa mite shift to the Western honeybee?

The Eastern honeybee ($\textit{Apis cerana}$)

What color is a Varroa mite's body?

Reddish-brown to dark brown

How does a Varroa mite avoid detection and grooming by honeybees?

It is chemically "cloaked" because chemicals from the bee's body migrate to the mite.

Where on the honeybee's body do Varroa mites typically feed to suck hemolymph?

Between the soft tissue of the abdominal segments.

In which specific location are male Varroa mites found?

Only within capped brood cells.

What is the "phoretic phase" of the Varroa mite life cycle?

The stage where adult female mites feed on adult bees and move between them.

When does a foundress Varroa mite enter a brood cell?

Just before the cell is capped.

Though it can enter both, what type of brood cell does a Varroa mite prefer?

Drone cells

In Varroa mite reproduction, what does the unfertilized egg develop into?

A male mite

How many days does it take for a Varroa mite to develop from an egg to an adult?

Approximately 6 to 7 days.

On average, how many offspring mites does a foundress produce per drone cell?

Two offspring mites

What is often considered more serious than the direct feeding damage caused by Varroa mites?

The transfer of several types of viruses to the bees.

What are "acaricides"?

Chemicals specifically designed to kill mites.

What is the active chemical ingredient in the Varroa control product Apistan?

Tau-fluvalinate

What is the active chemical ingredient in the Varroa control product Apivar?

Amitraz

How does a screened bottom board assist in Varroa control?

It allows mites that fall off bees to drop out of the hive where they die.

Define Varroa Sensitive Hygiene (VSH).

A trait where bees detect and destroy capped brood that is infested with Varroa mites.

Why is the Russian honeybee (a strain of $\textit{A. mellifera}$) used in breeding programs for Varroa resistance?

It has developed natural resistance after being exposed to Varroa for roughly 150 years.

To what phylum does the Chalkbrood fungus belong?

Phylum $\textit{Ascomycota}$

How does the Chalkbrood fungus infect bee larvae?

Through microscopic spores entering the cuticle or contaminated food.

What is a "mummy" in the context of Chalkbrood disease?

A dead larva that has been consumed by white mycelium and dried out.

Why is the mycelium of the Chalkbrood fungus eventually turn dark in color?

Due to the appearance of spore cysts.

What are microsporidians?

Unicellular, primitive fungi that cause diseases like Nosema.

Which Nosema species is the original pathogen of the Western honeybee?

$\textit{Nosema apis}$

What is a characteristic symptom of $\textit{Nosema apis}$ infection visible on the outside of the hive?

Dysentery (diarrhea seen as yellow stripes).

How does $\textit{Nosema}$ cause a bee to starve?

It reproduces in the lining of the digestive system, disabling digestion.

What drug, derived from the stonebrood fungus, is used to treat $\textit{Nosema}$?

Fumidil B

In which honeybee subspecies does $\textit{Nosema ceranae}$ quickly spread from cell to cell in the gut epithelium?

$\textit{Apis mellifera}$ (Western honeybee)

What happens to the foragers of a hive infected with $\textit{Nosema ceranae}$?

They fly away from the hive and die, causing depopulation.

How does the seasonal activity of $\textit{Nosema ceranae}$ differ from $\textit{Nosema apis}$?

$\textit{N. ceranae}$ is active all year long, whereas $\textit{N. apis}$ peaks in cooler months.

What is the effect of treating $\textit{Nosema ceranae}$ with Fumidil B?

It makes the disease worse.

Why is there suspected link between $\textit{Nosema ceranae}$ and Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD)?

The symptoms of CCD resemble the hive depopulation seen in $\textit{N. ceranae}$ infections.

What type of organism causes American Foulbrood (AFB)?

A gram positive, endospore-forming bacterium.

At what age are honeybee larvae most susceptible to American Foulbrood?

Under one day old.

Describe the appearance of a larva killed by American Foulbrood.

It turns chocolate-brown and melts into a gooey mass.

What is the "ropiness" test for detecting American Foulbrood?

Touching a dead larva with a twig to see if a sticky "rope" of material pulls out.

What characteristic odor is associated with a hive infected with American Foulbrood?

A sulfurous odor (like a "chicken house").

How long can American Foulbrood spores remain viable?

At least 40 years.

What is the most effective method for destroying American Foulbrood spores in a colony?

Completely burning the colonies.

How do the visual symptoms of European Foulbrood (EFB) differ from American Foulbrood (AFB) regarding the larvae's shape?

In EFB, the larvae curl upwards and appear deflated rather than just melting.

Which physical internal structure becomes easily visible in larvae infected with European Foulbrood?

The tracheal tubes.

What odor is associated with a European Foulbrood infection?

A "sour" or "fishy" odor.

How do viruses replicate within a honeybee host cell?

They inject RNA or DNA to take over the cell's machinery, turning it into a virus assembly line.

What is a "latent" viral infection?

An infection where the virus lies dormant until an environmental stimulus triggers replication.

Why is viral transmission facilitated in bees already infected with $\textit{Nosema}$?

$\textit{Nosema}$ damages the gut lining, which normally serves as a protective structure against viruses.

What is the primary physical symptom of Sacbrood virus in late-stage larvae?

The larva fails to shed its skin just before pupation and dies.

Which virus is almost 100\% present in colonies heavily infested with Varroa mites?

Deformed Wing Virus (DWV)

Besides wing deformities, what is a major colony-level impact of Deformed Wing Virus?

High correlation with winter loss of colonies.

Which virus specifically targets queen pupae and is associated with $\textit{Nosema}$?

Black Queen Cell Virus (BQCV)

What are the two symptomatic patterns of Chronic Bee Paralysis Virus (CBPV)?

1. Trembling and cluster-forming; 2. Black, hairless, and greasy bodies.