Bio 118 - exam 4

1) more of our cells are:

2) there are ____ and ______ types

1) bacterial

2) rare and common

1. How many pound of microbes do we contain?

2. where can we find most of them?

3. how much do they make up of feces

4. where are four other places they can be found?

1. 6 ibs

2. many in gut

3. 1/3 - ½

4. niches on skin, vagina, mouth, lungs

1. what are 2 things microbes do?

2. what does helicobacter do

1. keep out invaders, feed us (digest things so we can use them)

2. reduces stomach acid + stims cells to tamp down immune overactivity

During a natural birth what microbes is the baby introduced to?

• Lactobacillus in vagina

• Milk (colostrum) rich in lactose

What are 4 things that take away our microbes

1. antibiotic treatments

2. antiseptic treatments

3. clean environment

4. c-sections (skin is colonized first)

What do germ free mice look like

• smaller

• sicker

• die earlier

Modern good health news

• infant mortality rate is down

• more people survive childbirth, surgery, infections

modern bad health news

• obesity = 30%

• juvinile diabetes doubles every 20 years

list 4 modern plagues

• asthma

• peanut allergy

• celiac

• eczema

There are ___ ____ nerurons in the gut as the brain

neurons

ex. Mice expressing the human gene for parkingsons

1. when we Make mice germ free colonize them with amaloid protein ecoli =

2. when we Make mice germ free colonize them  w/ ecoli no amaloid =

1. they develope early onset park

2. they dont develope early onset park

There’s a _____ _____ that goes from the gut to the ____, which creates a ________ transfer of info

• nerve bundle + brain

• chemical

• Obesity example

  • Obese mice have different gut flora than normal mice

    • Transfer flora from obese to normal mice

      • Flora from obese mice =

      • Flora from normal mice =

• Flora from obese mice = causes obesity

• Flora from normal mice = causes normal weight

Mouse model for salmonella found that for normal mice you need _____ salmonella cells. But if you treat the mice with _________ you only need _ cells to get infected

1. 10,000

2. antibiotics

3. 3

What are the 3 steps to protection aginst c.diff

1. After string antibiotic most bacteria are gone

2. c. diff takes over, infection from bowels

   • Hard to erase

3. Fecal transfer from healthy person to sicj to cure

What are some some bad things microbes cause

• ulcers

• gerd

• asthma

How does H.plyori survive the acid in the stomach

• Colonizes and affects lining

• Turns down acid production

• Causes inflamation

  • Immune reaction = suppress cells + tamp down autoimmune reaction

1. what tri do preg women gain weight and why

2. If you move pregnant microbes to non preg mice =

3. what can this weight gain mean and lead to

1. 3rd, baby + placenta

2. they gain weight

3. better nutrition for mom and baby, gestational diabetes

How are c-section babies different

• fatter + taller

• more likely to develope type 1 diabetes

• more likely to be obese

Explain the missing microbes hypothesis

• Microbial action during the first 2 years of growth is vital to human development

• Antibiotic treatments durring early stages has an effect

• Mouse model: treat early then stop antibiotics (still fatter)

• Correlation: increased antibiotic use = more allergies

• Diversity of microbes is essential

  • If you kill off a lot of them there will be some left over but wipe them out and you're done

Clean hypothesis

• Don't get inoculated early in life w/good germs

• Don’t get desensitized to allergins

• Not protected from modern plagues

• Need more contact with dirt in life

Hutterrite vs amish

1) how are they similar

2) how are they different

1) Same genetic stock, Closed breeding pop

2) Hutterish: use tech, more asthma, more allergies,no anim germs at early age

amish: don’t use modern tech, kids run around and get dirty

• Cleaner house =

• Pets =

• Cleaner house = more asthma

• Pets = less asthma

Coronavirus structure:

1) what size is the genome

2) DNA or RNA

3) DS or SS

4) Capsid = single protein wrapped around RNA to make

5) envelope is studded with _____ so it’s called a ______

1) large

2) rna

3) ss

4) Capsid = single protein wrapped around RNA to make helical spiral

5) spikes, crown

1. How many corona viruses are there

2. How many of them are affected by the common cold and resatory ailments

3. how many cause serious diseases

1. 4

2. 4/4

3. 3/4

What are the 3 types of corona virus

1. sars

2. mers

3. sars cov-2

1. What does Sars stand for

2. how fatal is it

3. how transmissable is it

1. severe acute respitory syndrome

2. 10%

3. More transmissable but needs close contact + already symptoms

1. What does MERS stand for

2. how fatal is it

3. how transmissable is it

1. middle east respitory syndrome

2. 35%

3. Not very transmissable, Requires close contact + symptoms

1. What does SARS CoV-2 stand for

2. how fatal is it

3. how transmissable is it

1. covid-19

2. 1.2%

3. Even more transmissible + asymptomatic transmission

Sars 2002 outbreak

1. where did it start

2. how did the gov react

3. is it still around today?

1. southern china in live animal market

2. Ignore, hide then drastic measures to contain. Then set up vaccine research and promised to report immediately

3. yes

What happened to the sars vaccine

• Initially major effort

• Money stopped in 2016

• No approved available vaccine yet

MERS 2002 outbreak

1. where did it start

2. how did the gov react

3. Did it ever reach epidemic status?

1. saudi arabia + cammals

2. WHO org had to teach proper sterilization and quarentine regulations

3. no

Covid 19 outbreak 2019

1. where did it start

2. how did the gov react

3. Did it ever reach epidemic status?

1. Wuhan china. wild animal meat market

2. Chinese gov ignored, hid it, then massive effort, fastest vaccine ever

What are some problems with the covid numbers

• Asymptomatic cases

• Before vs after vaccine

• How many ppl died from covid vs w/covid

How will the number change?

• Decrease bc herd immunity

• Testing matters bc of who we are testing

How was covid 19 similar to cholera

• Closed everything down but we can't do this again

• Capitalism is more important than public health

• Gov cover ups

How was covid 19 similar to bubonic plagues

How secure are our borderes

How was covid 19 similar to influenza

Flatten the curve (requires immediate response) then you can vaccinate and you miss the big spike

Explain the ventilator fallacy

• So many people need them

• Most ppl who needed them died anyway

Why was the covid vaccine so fast

• Guarantee that people would by even if they didn't work

Americans think we have the best health care system in the world but

1. the covid death rate was ____ ____ _____ _______ ______

2. for major problems you should go to _____ ____ ____

3. for pregnancies, heart attacks go to _________ ______

1. higher here than anywhere else

2. usa health system

3. somewhere else

Ebola

1) caude by _ _ _ virus and is _ _

2) damages _____ _____ so blood leaks out and the _____ cam’t pump blood to organs

3. leads to ______ ____ + _____ _______

1. rna, ss

2. blood vessels, heart

3. septic shock and organ failure

What symptoms will you see

• fever

• looks like normal viral infection

1. what year did it start

2. how many strains of ebola are there

3. What is the last one called and what does it affect

1. 1970

2. 4 strains

3. marburg virus 5th only in primates

Ebola Zaire

1. which strain is this and how common is it

2. where did it come from

3. how long was it found after sudam

• 1st one/most common

• Happened in the congo, probably bats

• 2 mo apart from sudam

1. when does ebola start and finish being infectious

2. how can someone become a carrier

3. how infectious is it if you die

1. fever until all symptoms gone

2. hides in organs

3. very

Monoclonal antibody

1. how many antibodies does it make

2. how to make antibodies

3. how long can it take to find the right antibody

4. when do you use this method

1. one each

2. give mice the gene

3. can take weeks

4. when it’s too late to take the vaccine

vaccine

1. how affective is it

2. explain how they put the virus in the vaccine

1. 80-90%

2. They take a virus, damage it so it won't grow in humans, it will have a capside against ebola

Ebola reston virus

1. which one is this?

2. Where and what created the outbreak

3. How were people affected

4. how did it spread

1. 5th

2. mokeys in virginia

3. mokeys died + humans infected but didn’t die

4. spread through air

Describe the OG Ebola outbreak

1. where did it happen

2. who got sick and died

3. how was it spread

1. Yambuku zaire

2. patients + staff died

3. reused 5 syringes

What changes were made after the samples were sent to the european lab

• quarentine area

• burn and bury bodies don’t touch

West Africa epidemic 2013-2016

1. which ebola

2. where did it travel

3. here did it reach and what did it cause

4. how did the community respond?

5. how many deaths

1. Ebola zaire

2. Started in guinea --> sierra leone + liberia

3. Reached large cities, Panic and many deaths

4. Slow action by international community

5. 12,000 deaths

ebola in america

1. what happened to patient

2. the traveling nurse

3. what type of panic did this cause

1. Traveled to dallas, misdiagnosed with flu, died

2. infected nurse went to wedding in columbia + came back had a fever

3. Schools closed, airplanes fumigated, Absence of good coverage of scientific facts

Describe what happened to Kaci Hicox

• Nurse returning from ebola came back to ny

• Governors of NY + NJ overreact

  • Quarentine her for 21 days

  • Released after 3 days by going to maine

name the 2 circulatory systems

1. circulates blood

2. lymph

1. What does the first circulatory system circulate

2. where does this go?

• circulate blood, liquid cells nutrients

• blood goes from heart to big arteries to capillaries to bigger veins back into the heart

1. what does the lymph do?

2. describe the process

1. scratch or ooze w/ liquid, feet swell - liquid

2. Red blood cells carry 02, white blood cells eat any garbage around. When the body wants to move it has to communicate which area it needs to move in and out while the lymph liquid moves around

   1. Like a vaccum cleaner it picks up whatever was pushed out of the other circulatory system and brings it back up and in everytime you twist a muscle or take a breath which changes pressure and pumps things

The immune system makes antibodies":

1. what do they do

2. how many antibody producing cells are there compared to different kinds

3. how many antibodies does each b-cell produce?

1. They protect you by inactivating cells and viruses or tagging them bringing attention to phagocytes

2. 25 bill to 10 mill diff kinds

3. 1 unique one

1. when b-cells produce a protein complex what shape are they

2. once a b-cell recognizes somethin what happens to the b-cell

3. what do the b-cells release

1. y

2. conformational change (shape changes)

3. antibodies for it into the bloodstream + lymp + tissues

what are the 3 cells of immunity

• Phagocytes

• Antigen presenting cells (APCS)

• t- cells

What is a phagocyte

white blood cell

What is an Antigen presenting cells (APCS)

• Phagocytes that finds stuff that needs to be recognized and bring it to the lymph nodes

• Also trims them up to carry

What is a t-cell

• Look like b-cells

• Has a part that’s the same for everybody and a part that is diff just like the b-cells

• Only makes one kind of t-cell receptors not antibodies

• They all have different grabbers

What do APC’s do

• Eat things (bacteria) and digest them + put the chunks on the surface in a special way

• will take it back to the lymph nodes to show them

Dendric cells

• Sticky all over and picks up whole viruses without digesting

• Takes to lymph nodes

What is clonal expansion

• When a bunch of cells derive from a single cell (all genetic info will be exactly the same)

• But some of them will develop different things

• Some of them will be massively over represented

how to make the right antibody (4 steps)

1. b-cell makes a single antibody

2. it swallows the antibody to become an APC

3. presents what they ate to lymph nodes even when its not the part of the virus needed

4. lymph nodes flood the region with t-cells

describe conformational change

1. t-cell must be ready to pick the right b-cell

2. when b-cell presents an antigen a t-cell recogs t-cell undergoes conformational change

3. t-cell pees out cytokyne in blood stream and anything close starts to divide but if nothing is there the signal gets diluted

where does cd4 fit in?

• cd4 holds on while b and t talk

• when either tries to send the signal to grow the pair will undergo clonal expansion

• raises immune response

What is cytokine activation

• when b-cell finds something to eat + goes through conformational change it secretes info to repro reps of itself (signal is often diluted)

• t-cell signal is better but only 1 signal dilutes it

Adaptive immunity

binding to a single thing makes a little bit of immunity but not enough to get things going. You need t-cell activation to hold both parts stable together so lots of b-cells will make the right antibody

Innate immunity

doesn't require a t-cell, you have to have multiple copies of the same antigen tied together so if antibodies bind they will really bend the cell out of shape

what do Cytotoxic T cells (kill cells) do?

• Pee out horrible things

• Equivalent of bleach

• Will kill anything in sight

  • For emergency where immune response isn't enough

  • But can cause immune overeaction

How does HIV fit into this

• For the first few years b + T cells work

• GP120 binds to CD4 so for the immune response to work you need the presented cell, t-cell + CD4

  • HIV will either infect the t-cell or destroy it

• As long as there are CD4 cells around HIV can always be made

• After killing off all these T4 cells it's harder to fight the infection

• It gets worse

  • Dendridic cells: they bring whole viruses to the lymphnode which holds T4 + CD4 cells which it will kill

  • Since HIV is a retro virus it was inserted into the genome of cells and will make rna eventually

And the Band Played On:

And the Band Played On: Robert Gallo

was a leading American scientist who helped identify HIV as a retrovirus and pushed for U.S. recognition. He is portrayed as competitive and somewhat political, especially in the dispute over who discovered the virus first. Some evidence suggests his lab may have used French samples, raising accusations that he “cheated.”

And the Band Played On: don francis

was a CDC epidemiologist who pushed early warnings about AIDS transmission. He is shown as dedicated and outspoken, often frustrated by government inaction

And the Band Played On: max essex

studied retroviruses and helped connect AIDS to that class of viruses, partly through his work with animal diseases.

And the Band Played On: Don francis

worked at the CDC and pushed aggressively for action, but was often ignored or blocked

And the Band Played On: Selma dritz

worked in San Francisco and was among the first to recognize unusual disease patterns in gay men. She faced resistance and lack of urgency from authorities.

And the Band Played On: Jim Curran

Jim Curran led the CDC AIDS task force and helped coordinate research, but had to operate with limited funding and political pressure.

And the Band Played On: What role did the bathhouse owners play?

resisted closures because bathhouses were symbols of gay freedom and community. However, they also became major centers of transmission due to anonymous sexual contact. This created a conflict between public health and civil rights, delaying action that could have slowed the spread.

And the Band Played On: What role did the blood bank directors play?

For profit, non-profit, hospital based, university based. Which one was first to allow testing? What were the issues they considered? Was there a difference between for-profit and not-for-profit ones?

Blood bank directors were hesitant to act because of:

• fear of causing public panic

• financial concerns

• lack of definitive proof early on

There were differences:

• Non-profit / community-based banks were more cautious but sometimes slower

• For-profit banks were more resistant due to cost and liability

Eventually, testing was introduced, but too late, leading to infections (e.g., hemophiliacs)

And the Band Played On: Who was Gaetan Dugas? Was the Broadway choreographer’s name ever mentioned?

GD: patient zero who slept with hundreds of me

• choreographer not named showinghow ppl became anonymous victims

And the Band Played On: Government Workers: Help or Hinder?

• Ronald Reagan largely hindered response by delaying public acknowledgment and funding.

• Margaret Heckler eventually announced the virus but was criticized for oversimplifying progress.

• Jim Curran and Selma Dritz helped, despite constraints.

• Mervyn Silverman supported public health measures like closing bathhouses.

And the Band Played On: Disease Don Francis Worked on First

ebola

And the Band Played On: ote that Don Francis is not the same person as Tom Francis. Where did you see

Tom Francis? In connection with what disease?

Thomas Francis Jr. was involved in influenza research.
You likely saw him referenced in connection with flu pandemics or vaccine development, not AIDS.

And the Band Played On:Why So Many Blood Samples from Gay Men?

Researchers had blood samples because of earlier hepatitis and STD studies in the gay community. This unintentionally became crucial for tracing the early spread of HIV.

And the Band Played On: Max Essex & Feline Leukemia

Max Essex studied feline leukemia virus, a retrovirus in cats. This helped scientists understand that AIDS might also be caused by a retrovirus, which turned out to be correct.

And the Band Played On: Early AIDS Cases: US vs Europe

• In the U.S., early cases were linked to gay men, leading to the term GRID (Gay-Related Immune Deficiency).

• In Europe, cases were linked to African exposure or travel, not just sexuality.

Europeans criticized the U.S. focus on “gay disease” as narrow and misleading, which delayed broader understanding.

And the Band Played On: Heros vs villains

Heroes:

• Don Francis

• Selma Dritz

• Luc Montagnier

• Jim Curran

Villains (or negatively portrayed):

• Robert Gallo (competitive, questionable ethics)

• Ronald Reagan (inaction)

• Bathhouse owners (resistance to closure)

• Some blood bank officials

And the Band Played On:Who First Isolated HIV

French scientists led by Luc Montagnier were the first to isolate the virus that causes AIDS.