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Mapp v. Ohio (1961)

Evidence obtained through illegal searches CANNOT be used in court; extended the Exclusionary Rule to state courts via the 4th Amendment.

Riley v. California (2014)

Police CANNOT search a person’s cell phone without a warrant during an arrest; digital privacy is protected by the 4th Amendment.

Loving v. Virginia (1967)

Struck down state laws banning interracial marriage; ruled they violated the Equal Protection and Due Process Clauses of the 14th Amendment.

Gideon v. Wainwright (1963)

Anyone accused of a felony has the right to an attorney; if you can’t afford one, the government must provide one (6th Amendment applied to states).

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

Congress has implied powers beyond those listed in the Constitution (Elastic Clause); states cannot tax federal institutions — established federal supremacy.

Brown v. Board of Education (1954)

Racial segregation in public schools is unconstitutional; overturned Plessy v. Ferguson by ruling “separate but equal” is inherently unequal (14th Amendment).

Marbury v. Madison (1803)

Established the principle of Judicial Review — the Supreme Court has the power to strike down laws that violate the Constitution.

Korematsu v. United States (1944)

Upheld the internment of Japanese Americans during WWII as a wartime necessity; later widely condemned as a violation of civil rights.

Obergefell v. Hodges (2015)

Same-sex couples have a constitutional right to marry nationwide; denial of marriage licenses violated the 14th Amendment’s Due Process and Equal Protection Clauses.

Dred Scott v. Sanford (1857)

Ruled that enslaved people were property, not citizens, and had no right to sue; also declared the Missouri Compromise unconstitutional — one of the most infamous rulings in U.S. history.

United States v. Nixon (1974)

The President is NOT above the law; Nixon had to hand over the Watergate tapes, establishing limits on executive privilege.

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)

Established the “separate but equal” doctrine, allowing racial segregation in public facilities; later overturned by Brown v. Board of Education.

Where is the Judicial Branch found in the Constitution?

Article III of the Constitution establishes the Judicial Branch.

What does the Constitution say about the number of Justices?

The Constitution does NOT specify a number — Congress sets the size. It has been 9 justices since 1869 (set by the Judiciary Act of 1869).

How long do Supreme Court Justices serve?

Justices serve for LIFE (during “good behavior”) — they can only leave by retirement, death, resignation, or impeachment.

How do Justices get their positions?

The President nominates them, and the Senate confirms them (advice and consent) — Article II, Section 2.

What do Plessy v. Ferguson and Brown v. Board of Education have in common?

Both dealt with racial segregation in public facilities/schools. Plessy allowed it (“separate but equal”); Brown overturned it 58 years later.

What is Jurisdiction?

Jurisdiction is the authority of a court to hear and decide a case.

What is Original Jurisdiction?

The power of a court to hear a case FIRST (before any other court). The Supreme Court has original jurisdiction over cases involving states or ambassadors.

What is Appellate Jurisdiction?

The power of a court to review and overturn decisions made by a lower court. Most Supreme Court cases come through appellate jurisdiction.

What is Concurrent Jurisdiction?

When both federal AND state courts have the power to hear the same type of case.

How many Federal District Courts are there?

There are 94 Federal District Courts — they are the trial courts of the federal system.

What are the two types of federal courts?

Constitutional (Article III) Courts — like District Courts, Courts of Appeals, and the Supreme Court — and Legislative (Article I) Courts created by Congress for special purposes.

Who was the first female nominated to the Supreme Court?

Sandra Day O’Connor — nominated by President Reagan in 1981.

Who was the first minority appointed to the Supreme Court?

Thurgood Marshall — appointed by President Lyndon B. Johnson in 1967 as the first African American Justice.

What is Judicial Review?

The power of the Supreme Court to declare laws or executive actions unconstitutional. Established in Marbury v. Madison (1803) by Chief Justice John Marshall — NOT explicitly in the Constitution.

What is a Writ of Certiorari?

A formal request asking the Supreme Court to review a lower court’s decision. The Court is NOT required to hear the case.

What is the “Rule of Four”?

At least FOUR of the nine Justices must agree to grant a Writ of Certiorari (agree to hear the case) for it to be accepted.

Current Supreme Court Justices (9 total)

Chief Justice John G. Roberts Jr.; Associate Justices: Clarence Thomas, Samuel Alito, Sonia Sotomayor, Elena Kagan, Neil Gorsuch, Brett Kavanaugh, Amy Coney Barrett, Ketanji Brown Jackson.

Who has served on the Court the longest?

Clarence Thomas — appointed in 1991, the longest-serving current Justice.

Who is the newest Supreme Court Justice?

Ketanji Brown Jackson — joined the Court in 2022; also the first Black woman on the Supreme Court.

What are Federal District Courts?

The 94 trial courts of the federal system — the entry point for federal cases. They hear both civil and criminal cases, evaluate evidence, and have juries.

What is the Court of Appeals (Circuit Courts)?

There are 13 Courts of Appeals. They review decisions from District Courts. They do NOT hold new trials — they only review whether the law was applied correctly (appellate jurisdiction only).

What are the four outcomes of a Supreme Court decision?

1) Affirm (uphold the lower court’s ruling); 2) Reverse (overturn it); 3) Remand (send back to lower court for a new trial/reconsideration); 4) Vacate (cancel the lower court’s ruling).

What is Judicial Restraint?

The belief that courts should AVOID overturning laws and defer to the elected branches of government — judges should interpret the law narrowly and not “legislate from the bench.”

What is Judicial Activism?

The belief that courts SHOULD strike down unjust laws and use their power to protect rights and adapt the Constitution to modern society — even if it means overriding the legislature.

BONUS: What does the Solicitor General do?

The Solicitor General represents the U.S. federal government before the Supreme Court — argues on behalf of the government in cases and decides which government cases to appeal.