AQA A-Level History : France in Revolution : Section 4 - The Directory and Napoleons rise to power 1795-99

The Thermidorian Reaction

Thermidorians -> men who overthrew robespierre

Robespierre & associates labelled as terrorists

Deputies of National Convention moved to end Terror & reverse process of centralisation:

- memberhsip of CPS & CGS frequently changes

- Set up new committees -> share givt responsiblity

- reorangise revolutionary tribunal

- Repealing law of prairial

- Releasing all suspects from prision

- Abolishing the paris commune

- closing Jacobin Club

Also established freedom of worship for all religion

The White Terror

Guilded Youth intimidated and beat up former jacobins, militants and former sans culottes

In provinces violence worse

South -> terror so brutal there were savage reprisals against ex terrorists

Prison massacres and street murders -> 2,000 lives in 1795

Govt unable /unwilling to stop the violence continuing into 1796

Guerilla warfare flared in vendee with chouan movement -> response to to suppression of 1793, opposition to conscription and had royalist links

British assistance -> emigre army landed Brittany but defeated and hundreds executed

Violence suppressed by 1796 due to army

The 1795 Parisian risings

Thermidorians abolished price controls in 1794 = fall in value of assignats and high inflation

Harsh winter = food shortages

Germinal 1 April

Shortages led to demonstration in paris

Called for bread price controls and release of former members of CPS surrounded the national convention

Gained no support from deputies and National Guard loyal to Convention -> dispersed

In aftermath some ex terrorists exiled to Guiana

Prairial 20 - 22 May

Some demonstrators armed and National Guard joined them

To begin with National Convention deputies were forced at cannon points to give in but when loyal army units arrived -> regain control

Some demonstration leaders arrested & executed or imprisoned

Thousands disarmed and power of sans culottes finally broken

Loyalty of army to govt crucial and something that been missing 1789

The constitution

The thermidorians produced new constitution in 1795 -> designed to prevent return to monarchy & dictatorship

National Convention (Legislature) replaced:

Council of 500 -> all members over 30, initiated legislation

Council of Ancients -> 250 members over 40, approved or rejected legislation

Annual elections for both -> changes 1/3 of members each year

All males over 21 who paid direct taxes could vote for electors, electors rich men who paid high taxes voted for council members

CPS replaced by Directory of Five

- chosen by Ancients from list drawn up by 500

- in office 5 years

- chosen 1 at a time by lot to retire each year

Weaknesses in Constitution

- Yearly elections led to instability

- no mechanism to resolve disputes between the directors and 2 councils

= stalemate and inaction

Economic problems

- first tried to solve inflation by using paper currency

- when failed and had to be withdrawn, metal coins became legal currency -> not enough coins in circulation, trade and commerce hindered

- deflation was this result

- failure made directory unpopular with all sections of society

Financial Problems - bankruptcy

Directory more successful in solving the problem of govt finances. In September 1797 2/3 of national debt written off through issue of bonds to give creditors

Bonds see to buy national property - property confiscated from crown, church and others

Bonds fell in value until became worthless

This was the bankruptcy of 2/3 -> lost support

Financial problems

For govt income -> relied in part on profits of war - taken from captured territories in germany and italy ->Allowed directory to function but at the cost of greater reliance on the army and on an aggressive war policy

Ramel reformed tax system 1798:

- introduced 4 new direct taxes -> tax on windows and doors high rich hardest

- reintroduced indirect tax, octrois (tax on goods entering towns)

- made tax collection more efficient

Effect of these policies was to balance govt finances but at cost of alienating those sections of society that govt most relied on for support

Political problems and policies

France not just divided by desire for revenge but also deep political difference

Left = neo-jacobins

Right = royalists

Directory needed to draw upon both sides at times to survive

Vendemiaire Uprising

Oct 1795

Royalists split

Some wanted return constitutional monarchy under imprisoned Dauphin

When he died 1795 uncle issued Verona Declaration promising to restore ancient constitution and return all lands to original owners

In this political climate national convention passed law of 2/3 to ensure new councils dominated by those committed to continuing revolution

This caused vendmiaire uprising

25,000 demonstrators surrounded national convention but dispersed by army using cannon

Over 300 died in fighting little repression afterwards but national guard placed under command of Napoleon

Conspiracy of Equals

March 1796

Babeuf planned revolutionary uprising using police and army to set up a dictatorship

This would then create a very different french society, one organised on lines very close to communism

He was betrayed, arrested tried and executed

Brotier Plot, Jan 1797

Brotier a royalist agent and well conspirators were arrested for planning to persuade the troops in Paris to overthrown the government

Coup of Fructidor

1797, royalists did well in the election and close to gaining control of councils

2 directors sympathetic

Remaining directors called upon army for support

Troops surrounded Council chambers and many royalists arrested including 2 directors & 27 deputies

65 deported to Guiana

Thereafter the election results were overturned

Directors were in control of councils and in effect the constitution had been overthrown

Emigres given 2 weeks to leave France and clergy were forced to swear an oath rejecting any for royal support

Coup of Floreal, May 1798

In 1798, neo - Jacobins did well in the elections, although they were nowhere near controlling the councils.

The directors made sure that the elections of 127 deputies were annulled and chose their replacements

Strengths of the directory

- solved govt finances

- had the support of army

- destroyed sans - culottes power

Weaknesses of the directory

- constitution itself

- deep divisions in french society

- reliance on war and hence army

- undemocratic actions - example: floreal

Military campaigns and expansion abroad

When directory came to power no foreign armies on french soil

1796 france only faced Britain and Austria

Other countries of first coalition had been knocked out of the war and 2 of them Spain & Holland, became french allies

An aggressive war policy was followed

The plunder helped finance the govt and war kept ambitious generals occupied

Also some directors, it was alleged, had corrupt links with war profiteers and so directly benefited themselves

Napoleons background, character and military leadership

Son of minor aristocratic family -> sent to france for education

Entered the Ecole Militaire in Paris in 1784 and was its first Corsican graduate

Became a support of the revolution

He put family first -> later when he appointed family to kingships

He would seek revenge

Napoleons contribution to french success

At the siege of Toulon, as commander of artillery, he devised a plan which drove british navy out

- this won him promotion -> commander of army of italy

After Thermidor, his association with Robespierre led to brief spell in prison

In 1795 he was in the right place in the right time - paris -> placed in charge of forces to defend national convention against vendemiaire uprising -> use of cannon fire crucial

This earned his command of the army of italy

Italian Campaign 1796-97

Napoleon fought a successful campaign in italy

Took a small army and charismatic leadership -> series of victories

In the process he collected a lot of money which helped finance directory

Sent back troops to help the directory in the coup of fructidor

After driving the Austrians out of italy his advance into italy forced them to sue for peace

N negotiated the treaty of campo formio in Oct 1797, without consulting the directory, and returned to france a hero

Egyptian Campaign, 1798

After italy, Napoleon sailed to Egypt to attack British interests

His army won the Battle of the Pyramids but was unsuccessful in capturing Syria

His fleet was destroyed by Nelson at the Battle of the Nile, leaving his army trapped

He abandoned his fleet and went back to France in Aug of 1798

Popularity of Directory

A number of events, decisions and developments in 1798 and 1799 contributed to the decline in power and popularity of the directory

Jourdan's Law, Sept 1798

Conscription was reintroduced to rebuild the size of the army -> widespread resistance

The second coalition

Encouraged by British success, the second coalition formed in 1799.

Revolutionary war continued, french armies pushed back into france from germany and italy

-> meant directory couldn't continue to be funded by plunder

-> threats of invasion made it unpopular = france weary of war

Coup of Prairial

June 1799

War going badly and directors getting blamed -> neo-jacobin led Councils felt strongly enough to purge 2 of the directors. This was followed by 2 new laws. The first was a forced loan on the rich, which was hated and resisted

The law of Hostages

Any area seen as resisting the govt could be declared 'disturbed' and then local authorities could arrest relatives of nobles, emigres and rebels imprisoned them and confiscated property

-> law never applied, but strength of the neo-jacobins raised fears of a return to terror

All these problems led to a breakdown in govt in parts of france

The Coup of Brumaire pt 1

Late 1799 the military station improved as partners in second coalition failed to co=operate and were separately defeated

Sieyes a director plotted a coup

Wanted to restore power of executive -> knew a democratic approach was impossible due to strength of neo-jacobins in the councils

Needed support of the army and of general -> chose napoleon

The Coup of Brumaire pt 2

Sieyes planned to move the councils out of paris to st cloud and did so 10 Nov 1799 on pretext of a neo - jacobin plot.

Napoleon persuaded to address the Council -> came to realise who plotters really were

Council of 500 -> attacked by deputies but his soldiers came to rescue

Councils cleared by military force and the plotters issued a decree abolishing the directory

Had lost so much popularity and legitimacy through its undemocratic actions that no one came forward to defend

The Coup of Brumaire pt 3

In its place france ruled by provisional executive committee of 3: Sieyes, Roger Ducos & Napoleon. Sieyes saw Napoleon as providing a figurehead for new regime, but Napoleon had different ideas

When 3 consuls met that evening, Napoleon insisted that she should become first consul, the head of state with complete control and as he controlled army -> ended argument

The constitution of the Year VIII

New constitution result 2 weeks negotiations

Napoleon first consul -> executive power in war and peace -> other 2 consuls had advisory function only

Senate intended by sieyes -> balance of power of the executive

Appointed half of its members who then chose the rest

Appointment was for life & grew in size with new senators nominated by napoleon

Instead of challenging agreed as he gifted them money and land

No property qualification for voters

All men over 21 eligible to vote -> but no elections -> presentations of candidates suitable for appointment -> undemocratic

Male population chose communal list who chose department list who chose the national list (notables)

The Notables

Key group

Highest tax men, the richest in each department. Replaced every 3 years.

From their number senate chose the legislative bodies who were to serve 5 years:

Tribunate:

- 100 members over 25

- discussed legislation drafted by senate not able to vote on it

Legislature:

- 300 members over 30

- voted on legislation in secret not able to discuss

The executive

Made up of first consul, senate and council of state

The First Consul:

- appointed all ministers and initiated all legislation

- along with other consuls, elected for 10 years

Senate:

- 60 members over 40

- appointed for life

- nominated by first consul

- verified legislation

Council of state:

- 30-40 members

- nominated all central and local officials

- helped initiate legislation

Strengths and weaknesses

- avoided instability of annual elections & potential for stalemate

- system of checks and balances it centralised power in the hands of the First Consul

-> open to N military dictatorship

- drawn up short period but put into action illegally before the plebiscite to approve it could be organised

- endorsed by plebiscite in 1800 which was rigged

Napoleons position and the state of france by 1799

End of 1799 revolutionary war turned

France victorious, internal royalist revolts had been suppressed and Napoleon popular

He offered strong govt

Directory appeared unable to protect

Key point napoleon had support of army