Principles of Biology FINAL EXAM study guide: info from all tests

What are the Six characteristics of life:

1. Organisms are composed of cells

2. Organisms grow and develop

3. Organisms reproduce

3. Organisms react to stimuli

4. Organisms regulate

5. Populations of organisms evolve

What is the basic structural and functional unit of life that consists of material bound by a membrane?

the cell

Where do new cells come from?

new cells come from old cells

What are the simplest forms of life?

simplest forms of life are unicellular.

Compare and contrast, plant cells, animal cells, and bacteria cells:

a. plant cells: cell wall, cell membrane, nucleus, membrane bound organelles, chloroplasts

b. Animal cells: cell membrane, nucleus, membrane bound organelles

c. bacteria: cell wall, cell membrane, may have flagella or cilia, contains DNA but no nucleus, no membrane bound organelles, only ribosomes.

What are the two types of cells? Describe each and list the kingdoms they include.

a. Eukaryotic: include kingdoms Animalia, plantae, Protista, and fungi. Cell membrane, in case of plants cell wall, have a nucleus and membrane bound organelles. Eu= true nucleus.

b. Prokaryotic: kingdoms bacteria and archea. Cell wall and membrane, no nucleus, have DNA and ribosomes. Pro= before nucleus.

How do organisms grow? How do they develop?

organisms grow through cell division-- organisms develop by their characteristics changing overtime.

What are metabolic processes?

they help the cell regenerate to repair damage, and help maintain homeostasis.

What are the two ways organisms can reproduce?

asexual reproduction (binary fission) -- sexual reproduction (egg and sperm cell form a zygote)

Elaborate on the statement populations evolve, and the two different types of evolution examples:

a. they change over generations, for example the average human height has increased over generations.

b. structural- walrus's develop blubber to withstand cold

c. behavioral- bird's migration patterns have changed over time because of climate change

What is an example of information transfer within and among organisms:?

a. within- if you touch something hot then you know to move your hand.

b. between- trees transfer chemicals through roots to one another underground

Define DNA; What does DNA code for?

a large molecule that contains heritable information -- codes for proteins (amino acid chains, polypeptides)

How many species have been discovered thus far? How many do we think we have yet to discover? What do we believe most of them are?

a. 1.8 million species have been discovered thus far.

b. 5-50 million species.

c. most undiscovered are believed to be fungi and bacteria.

What is the two part way of naming species called; Describe the rules for writing a species name by this system:

The two name system for naming species is called the binomial system of nomenclature Rules: capitalize the first name, the second is not capitalized; when writing it you underline it; when you type it you italicize it ; how to write an abbreviation H. sapiens

Who is Carolus Linnaeus?

father of taxonomy, he gave us the binomial system of nomenclature

What is a species? A closely related group of species is called:

Species: a group of organisms with similar function and structure that CAN interbreed; closely related group of species is called a taxon

What is the memory key did king Philip come over for good sex for?

domain-> kingdom->phylum-> class-> order-> genus-> species

Domain one: bacteria-- contains what kingdom?

Kingdom within it Eubacteria (examples: strep, E. coli)

Domain two: Archea-- contains what kingdom?

Kingdom archeabacteria; many are extremophiles

Domain three: Eukaryotes-- contains what kingdoms?

1. Kingdom one: protists- unicellular misc. category

2. Kingdom two: Plantae-plants

3. Kingdom three: Animalia -worms, mammals, ect

4. Kingdom four: Fungi- mold, mildews, yeast

Hierarchy of life:

a. Cells make up _________

b. _______ make up organs

c. Organs make up _________ __________

d. ________ _______ make up organisms

e. Organisms make up ___________

f. ___________ make up communities

g. Communities make up ____________

h. ______________ make up the biosphere

Hierarchy of life:

a. Cells make up tissues

b. tissues make up organs

c. Organs make up organ systems

d. Organ systems make up organisms

e. Organisms make up populations

f. Populations make up communities

g. Communities make up ecosystems

h. ecosystems make up the biosphere

Define what a population is:

group of organisms of the same species living in the dame place.

Define what a community is:

group of different populations in the same place.

Define what an ecosystem is:

Includes the community and abiotic environment

What is the biosphere?

earth and all it's inhabitants and it's abiotic environment

Evolutionary theory is a widely accepted _______ _________ that has been rigorously retested-- Supported by numerous what?

scientific theory; different scientists in numerous different studies.

What is homeostasis?

the way the body maintains life maintaining functions, example breathing, stable temperature, ect.

What are emergent properties?

only observable at lower levels

The study of how organisms relate to one another and their physical environment is called:

ecology

What is a clade?

group of organisms with a common ancestor

Define an element:

simplest form of a substance that cannot be broken down any further

What is the smallest portion of an element that retains its chemical properties?

the atom

Describe the charges:

a. Proton=

b. Electron=

c. Neutron=

a. Proton= positive

b. Electron= negative

c. Neutron= neutral

What makes an atom neutral?

equal number of protons and electrons

What is the atomic number?

number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.

The number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom is called the

atomic mass

How do you find the number of neutrons in an atom?

subtract the atomic number from the atomic mass

An electrically charged atom that is the result of a gain or loss of electrons:

an ion

What is a cation?

a cation is a positive ion produced by the loss of electrons

What is a negative ion called? How does it become negative?

an anion is a negative ion that is caused by the gaining of electrons

An atom of the same element with a different number of neutrons is called:

an isotope

What is a stable molecule composed of?

two atoms joined in a chemical bond

What is a compound?

two different elements joined in a chemical bond

All compounds are ____________, but not all ___________ are compounds

molecules

What are the major players in chemical reactions?

electrons are the major players in chemical reactions

Where do electrons exist?

electrons exist in an electron cloud around the nucleus

Describe electron orbitals:

a. orbitals have a max of 2 electrons per orbital

b. orbitals with similar energy levels make up energy shells.

What determines the chemical behavior of an atom? Why?

the valence shell, they like to be full or empty

A covalent bond occurs when:

an electron is shared by two atoms

Name the three types of hydrogen bonds and describe which is the strongest and weakest:

single (weakest), double, triple (strongest).

The bond that is described by the statement "opposites attract":

ionic bond, bonds between ions.

What is a hydrogen bond?

a weak bond formed between a hydrogen atom and an electronegative atom. Partially negative and partially positive, overall neutral.

What is the strongest type of chemical bond, and the weakest?

covalent bonds are the strongest, hydrogen bonds are the weakest.

What is water composed of?

two hydrogen and one oxygen

What does it mean to be polar?

one end is slightly negative and the other is positive but the molecule as a whole is neutral.

What kind of bond forms between water molecules?

water molecules are joined by hydrogen bonds.

How many bonds can a single compound if water form?

water can form up to 4 hydrogen bonds

Describe cohesion and adhesion. What happens when they work together?

a. Cohesion: like molecules are attracted to one another-> Examples causes water to bead up, also causes surface tension.

b. Adhesion: molecules attracted to different molecules-> Examples edges of a cup higher than the middle.

c. capillary action, when a tree moves water up using no ATP

What two properties of water help us maintain a stable temperature?

high specific heat and high heat of vaporization

How is ice less dense than water? What is the magic number allows for this to form?

a. the crystalline lattice structure, gaps in shape allow for lesser density.

b. the magic number for this shape is 4 degrees Celsius

An acid dissociates to yield what? What is another name for acids?

hydrogen ions (H+), also called proton donors

What does pH measure?

the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution.

The Ph scale:

- Goes from 0-_____

- 1-_____ = acids

- ____ = neutral

- 8-_____= bases

The Ph scale:

- Goes from 0-14

- 1-6 = acids

- 7 = neutral

- 8-14= bases

A compound that has a backbone composed of carbon can be referred to as a

organic molecule

Why can carbon form a variety of molecules?

it has four valence electrons

Hydrocarbons are large molecules containing what? What two ways do they exist?

a. made of hydrogen and carbon, a few oxygen containing functional groups

b. exist as rings or chains

True/False: hydrocarbons are hydrophilic and polar:

false

What is an isomer?

molecules with the same molecular formula but different structure- results in different functions.

What does shape determine in the case of isomers?

function

Groups attached to a hydrocarbon that function in a certain way and change the properties of an organic compound are known as:

functional groups

Molecules composed of repeating subunits of the same general type are called:

polymers

Name some examples of polymers:

monomer, dimer, polymer

Monomers are the subunits of __________

polymers

A dimer is composed of what?

two monomers

A polymer is defined as

3 or more monomers

How do polymers form?

condensation reactions

How do polymers degrade back to monomers?

hydrolysis reactions

Define condensation reactions, and hydrolysis reactions:

a. condensation: = of water molecule is removed for every covalent bind formed

b. hydrolysis: = of one water molecule is added for every covalent bond broken

What three things are classified as carbohydrates?

sugars, starches. cellulose

_______ and _______ are sources of energy for cells. _________ is a structural component of cells.

sugars and starches; cellulose

Mono, di, and polysaccharides are all what? Give an example of each.

a. monosaccharide: one sugar unit; example glucose

b. disaccharides: 2 monosaccharides; example maltose

c. Polysaccharide: 3 or more monosachrides ; example amylose starch

Monosaccharides: one _______ unit. Name the two types and what they are used for.

a. one sugar

b. Type One: hexos (6 carbons) used for energy; 3 kinds-> glucose, galactose, fructose

c. Type Two: pentos (5 carbons) used for DNA; two kinds-> deoxyribose, ribose

Disaccharides are composed of what. How do they form? Name three types and what they are composed of.

a. composed of two monosaccharides

b. formed through condensation reactions

c. Type One: Maltose (Glucose + Glucose)

d. Type Two: Lactose (Glucose +Galactose)

e. Type Three: Sucrose (Glucose + Fructose)

Polysaccharides are more than two what? They can store _____ or provide structure.

monosaccharide; energy

List the three main types of polysaccharides:

starch, glycogen, cellulose

Starch-> polysaccharide (used for _________)

i. Polymer of ___________

ii. Main storage carb for what?

iii. Amylose is ____________

--->Explain relationship between amylose and amylase:

iv. Amylopectin is unbranched

Used for energy.

i. Polymer of glucose

ii. Main storage carb for plants

iii. Amylose is branched

--->Explain relationship between amylose and amylase: amylose is the protein, amylase is the enzyme used to catalyze the breakdown of amylose,

iv. Amylopectin is unbranched

Glycogen-> polysaccharide (used for _______)

i. "________ _______"

ii. Main storage carb for ___________

iii. Stored mainly in what two places?

Used for energy.

i. "animal starch"

ii. Main storage carb for animals

iii. Stored mainly in what two places: muscles and liver

Cellulose-> polysaccharide (used for ___________)

i. Not used for ________

ii. Used in what?

iii. Very fibrous and ________

--> Explain how termites live off of wood:

Used for structure

i. Not used for energy

ii. Used in what? Cell wall of plants

iii. Very fibrous and strong

--> Explain how termites live off of wood: protists in their stomach can break down the cellulose

Name the three modified/complex carbs (polysachharides) :

glucosamine, galactosimine, glycoproteins/ Glycolipids

modified/complex carbs:

Glucosamine -->

i. Extremely hard polymer of:

ii. Found in what:

i. Extremely hard polymer of: amino sugars

ii. Found in what: anthropoid exoskeletons, and bones

modified/complex carbs:

Galactosimine -->

i. Polymer of :

ii. Found in what?

i. Polymer of : amino sugars

ii. Found in what? Cartilage

modified/complex carbs:

Glycoproteins and Glycolipids

i. Polymer of what and what?

ii. Important molecule in what?

i. Polymer of what and what? Proteins and lipids

ii. Important molecule in what? Cell membranes

Define what a lipid is:

hydrophobic molecule composed of mainly hydrogen and carbon with a few oxygen containing functional groups

Lipids are the most concentrated form of what?

fat

What does adipose tissue store? What is its function? About how may pounds of this tissue does the average 20 male and female have?

a. fat

b. protect tissues and organs

c. male 16; female 22

A glycerol head with 3 fatty acid chains is referred to as:

triglyceride

What is a saturated fat considered? What does it mean to be saturated?

a. triglyceride

b. there are no double bonds in the fatty acid chain, it is saturated with hydrogens.

What is an example of a saturated fat? What are they at room temperature? Where do they come from? Are they generally good or bad for you?

- Example: butter

- What are they at room temperature? solid

- What sources do they usually come from? animal

- Generally what? Bad

What is an unsaturated fat classified as? what does it mean to be unsaturated?

a. triglyceride

b. not saturated with hydrogen, at least one or more double bonds in the fatty acid chain.

What is an example of a unsaturated fat? What are they at room temperature? Where do they come from? Are they generally good or bad for you?

- Example olive oil

- What are they at room temperature? Liquid

- What sources do they usually come from? Plant

- Generally what? Healthier