AP Psych UNIT 0

concept application, research methods & design, data interpretation, and argumentation.

The 4 science practices/skills important to psychology are…

Curiosity, skepticism, and humility.

The 3 key elements of the scientific attitude are…

Curiosity

The “does it work?”… the desire to explore & understand why/how/if something is.

Skepticism

The “what do you mean” or “how do you know?”… asking if there is proof/evidence of something.

Humility

The “that was unexpected; let's explore further”… being ready for your idea to be wrong, and following the proof/evidence (not your opinion).

Critical Thinking

Asking questions, considering possible biases or assumptions, and using evidence from reliable sources to come to a conclusion.

hindsight bias, overconfidence, perceiving order in random events, and conformation bias.

The 4 cognitive biases discussed in class are…

Hindsight Bias (c.b.)

The “I knew it all along”… after an event occurs, we believe we predicted the outcome beforehand, despite realistic uncertainty. This bias makes outcomes seem obvious and inevitable in retrospect.

“I knew they would win” after a game you had your doubts about.

example of hindsight bias.

Overconfidence (c.b.)

We overestimate the accuracy of our knowledge/judgment. It makes our abilities/decisions seem better than they actually are.

“I aced that exam!” only to find out you made several mistakes.

example of overconfidence (bias).

Perceiving order in random events (c.b.)

The brain finds patterns even when none exist. This can lead us to see connections and order in random or unrelated events.

In a series of coin tosses, observers might notice a cluster of heads/tails and conclude there is a “lucky streak” or a biased coin.

example of perceiving order in random events (bias).

Conformation Bias (c.b.)

The tendency to search for/interpret/remember information that confirms our preexisting beliefs/opinions, rather than objectively evaluating evidence.

Being more likely to favor news outlets/opinions which align with our political views & ignore those that don’t, reinforcing your beliefs in an echo chamber.

example of perceiving order in random events (bias).

Psychodynamic, behavioral, cognitive, biological, sociocultural, evolutionary, and humanistic. The 7 types of psychological perspectives…

Psychodynamic (stems from Psychoanalysis) Perspective

FOCUS: Unconscious mind, early childhood experiences, interpersonal relationships. KEY CONCEPTS: Defense mechanism, psychosexual stages, id, ego, superego.

A therapist helping a patient understand their childhood trauma & how it affects their current relationships.

example of psychodynamic perspective.

Behavioral Perspective

FOCUS: Learned behaviors, conditioning, reinforcement. KEY CONCEPTS: Classical conditioning, operant conditioning, positive & negative reinforcement.

A teacher using a reward system to encourage students to complete their work.

example of behavioral perspective.

Cognitive Perspective

FOCUS: Mental processes, memory, thinking, problem-solving. KEY CONCEPTS: attention, perception, language, decision-making.

A therapist helping a patient identify and change negative thought patterns.

example of cognitive perspective.

Biological Perspective

FOCUS: Physical and biological bases of behavior. KEY CONCEPTS: Brain structure, neurotransmitters, genetics.

A researcher studying the effects of a new drug on brain activity.

example of biological perspective.

Sociocultural Perspective

FOCUS: How culture influences human behavior. KEY CONCEPTS: Cultural norms, values, beliefs.

A researcher comparing the parenting styles of different cultures.

example of sociocultural perspective.

Evolutionary Perspective

FOCUS: How the theory of evolution can explain psychological processes. KEY CONCEPTS: Natural selection, adaptation, survival of the fittest.

A researcher studying the evolution of mating preferences.

example of evolutionary perspective.

Humanistic Perspective

FOCUS: Motivation, self-actualization, personal growth. KEY CONCEPTS: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, unconditional positive regard.

A therapist helping a patient develop a stronger sense of self.

example of humanistic perspective.

Scientific Method (s.m.)

A process of evaluating ideas with observation & analysis with built-in self-correction.

peer reviewers, theory, hypothesis, falsifiability, operational definitions, and replication.

The 6 parts of the scientific method include…

Peer Reviewers (s.m.)

Other scientific experts who review researchers’ work to evaluate theory, originality, and accuracy, and decide if it will be published.

Theory (s.m.)

An explanation of behaviors/events using the organization of observations by principle ideas.

Hypothesis (s.m.)

A testable prediction. Usually made based on a good theory.

Falsifiability (s.m.)

How easily something can be disproven through evidence. A good hypothesis is falsifiable (can be disproven), ensuring it can be tested properly & potentially refuted.

Operational Definition (s.m.)

A definition that specifies how a concept is measured or manipulated in a study—it allows for precise measurement & replication. (For example, the ___ ___ of “sleep-deprived” is “at least 2 hours less than a person’s natural sleep”).

Replication (s.m.)

The process of repeating an experiment to see if the same results can be obtained. It confirms the reliability & validity of research findings. “_____ is confirmation.”

Non-Experimental Methodology

This kind of methodology uses description/calculation of observations or studies of behaviors and correlations. The main limitation is that it cannot establish cause-and-effect relationships.

Pros: Natural setting, easier & cheaper, ethical / Cons: no causality, confounding variables & biases, less control reduces validity

Pros / Cons of Non-Experimental Methodology

case studies, correlational studies, meta-analysis, and naturalistic observation.

The 4 non-experimental methods include…

Case Studies (Non-Ex)

A non-experimental method that examines a single individual or group in depth to reveal things true of us all. PROS: Revealing, suggests direction for further study, rare/unique. CONS: Misleading, under-representative, researcher bias, time & resource intensive.

Correlational Studies (Non-Ex)

A non-experimental method that examines the relationship between 2 or more variables to identify associations or make predictions. PROS: explores unmanipulable variables, can be in natural setting, provides insight into potential causal relationships. CONS: correlation is not causation, third-variable problem.

Meta-Analysis (Non-Ex)

A non-experimental method that statistically combines the results of multiple studies on the same topic & increases statistical effectiveness of a specific theory. PROS: increases statistical power bc more data, comprehensive overview, patterns/trends. CONS: dependent on quality of OG studies, publication bias, complex.

Naturalistic Observation (Non-Ex)

A non-experimental method done by recording responses in subjects’ natural environment. PROS: unobtrusive, generates hypotheses. CONS: no controlled variables, hard to find causation, observer bias, time-consuming.

Surveys

A tool/technique of non-experimental methodology that uses questionnaires or interviews to collect data from a large number of people. Its cheap & gathers a broad range of info quickly, but has several bias drawbacks.

Wording (how questions are worded).

What is important to consider when creating a survey?

Social Desirability Bias

Seen in surveys, people tend to respond with an answer they think will please the researcher.

Self-Report Bias

Seen in surveys, people tend not to accurately report/remember their behaviors.

Experimenter Bias

occurs when researchers expectations influence the outcome of a study. (For example, a researcher unintentionally encouraging participants to respond in a certain way). (Note: this can happen in both non-ex. and ex. methodology).

Sampling Bias

Occurs when the sample is not representative of the population. (For example, we only had one age range in our classroom doing the airplane laugh observation, so it was not representative of everybody who watches movies).

Representative Sample

Accurately reflects the demographics and characteristics of the population.

Random Sampling

Used for surveys; selecting from a group of people (target population) where everybody is equally likely to be chosen allows results to accurately generalize the entire population’s characteristics.

Population

The entire group that a researcher is interested in studying—the group from which samples are drawn, and to which the research findings will be generalized. (In the case of psychology, it does not refer to a country’s).

Sample

A smaller group selected from the population to participate in the study, and whose results will represent the whole population.

Correlation

Refers to a statistical relationship between two variables. When two things are correlated, changes in one variable are associated with (or predict) changes in the other.

Positive Correlation

Means that variables go in the same direction. IMAGE

Negative Correlation

Means that variables go in the opposite direction. IMAGE

Correlation Coefficient

The numerical value that represents the strength & direction of a relationship between two variables. It ranges from -1 to +1. The farther from 0, the stronger the relationship, whether negative or positive. A value of 0 means there’s no relationship.

Scatterplot

A graphical representation of the relationship between two variables. Each point represents an observation. The pattern reveals the type & strength of the correlation. IMAGE

Illusory Correlations

Occurs when people perceive a relationship between two variables even when none exists. (For example, believing that a full moon causes strange behavior).

Regression Towards the Mean

The tendency for extreme or unusual scores to fall back (regress) towards the average. (For example, if a student scores exceptionally high on one test, their next score is likely to be closer to their average performance).

Experimental Methodology

This kind of methodology uses the manipulation of variables, the observation of the effects on other variables, and the analysis of results. It allows researchers to draw conclusions about cause-and-effect.

Pros: cause-effect, control minimizes confounding variables & biases, replicable / Cons: artificial lab setting, time-consuming & costly, challenging ethics

Pros / Cons of Experimental Methodology

“Independent variable”, “random assignment”, “research experiment”

Keywords that indicate experimental research include…

Variable

Anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure.

Independent Variable (i.v.)

The variable that is manipulated by the experimenter. Researchers hope it will bring about change.

Dependent Variable (d.v.)

The variable that is measured to see how it is affected by changes in the independent variable.

Confounding Variable

An external factor that could influence the results of an experiment, making it difficult to establish a clear cause-and-effect relationship. (Watch out for these in ALL research, not just experiments!)

Experimental Group

The group in an experiment that receives the treatment or manipulation.

Control Group

The group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment, allowing researchers to compare results and draw conclusions about the treatment’s effect.

Random Assignment

Participants are randomly put in either the experimental or control group to ensure that each group is similar before the treatment is applied. Minimizes preexisting bias and ensures effects are due to the i.v. and not other factors. (DON’T confuse with random sampling!!!!!!)

Single-Blind Procedure

Participants do not know whether they are in the experimental or control group. Often used for drug tests w/ real vs placebo. (Note: if there are confederates, it does not count as this).

Double-Blind Procedure

Neither participants nor researchers know who is in the experimental or control group. Reduces bias and prevents expectations from influencing results.

Placebo

A harmless, inactive substance or treatment given to the control group to compare its effects with those of the actual treatment. (For example, a sugar pill in a drug trial).

Placebo Effect

The phenomenon where participants experience changes simply because they believe they are receiving a treatment.

Validity

The extend to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

A committee that reviews and approves research proposals to ensure they meet ethical standards.

Assessing potential risks/benefits of research, ensuring informed consent & confidentiality, reviewing procedures for protecting vulnerable populations.

The IRB’s (Institutional Review Board) responsibilities include…

Informed Consent

Participants must be fully informed about the research and its potential risks and benefits before agreeing to participate.

Informed Assent

For minors or individuals with diminished capacity, assent (agreement) is obtained—in addition to consent—from a legal guardian.

Protection from Harm

“Minimize Risk”; researchers must take steps to minimize any physical or psychological harm to participants.

Right to Withdraw

Participants have the right to withdraw from the study at any time without penalty.

Confidentiality

Participant information must be kept private and secure. This means you know who they are but remove identifying information from your research report. (Unlike where anonymity means you don't know who the participants are).

Anonymity

When possible, data should be collected without identifying information. This means you don't know who the participants are. (Unlike where confidentiality means you know who they are but remove identifying information from your research report).

Deception

In some studies, researchers may use ______ to create a realistic situation or avoid “demand characteristics” (a participant’s intentionally altered behavior).

Debriefing

After the study, participants must be fully informed about the research, including any deception used, and given the opportunity to ask questions.

Research Confederates

Individuals who act are participants, but are actually part of the research team, sometimes used in deception studies.

Institutional Animal Care & Use Committee (IACUC)

A committee that reviews and approved research proposals involving animals.

Minimize pain & stress, provide appropriate housing & care, justify the use of animals in the research.

Ethical considerations with using non-human animals include…

Qualitative Research

Focuses on in-depth/narrative understand and rich descriptions of phenomena.

Structured interviews, unstructured interviews, focus groups, observations, case studies.

Qualitative measurement tools include…

Structured Interviews (qual.)

Predetermined questions asked in the same order to each participant.

Unstructured Interviews (qual.)

Open-ended questions allowing for in-depth exploration of a topic.

Focus Groups (qual.)

Group discussions on a specific topic guided by a moderator.

Observations (qual.)

Systematic recording of a behavior in natural or controlled settings.

Pro: detailed data, generates new theories & hypotheses, useful for complex social phenomena / Con: subjective interpretation, difficult to generalize, time & resource intensive.

Pros / Cons of Qualitative Research include…

Quantitative Research

Emphasizes numerical data and statistical analysis.

Likert scales, psychological tests, psychological measures, surveys.

Quantitative measurement tools include…

Likert Scales (quan.)

Participants rate their agreement with statements on a numerical scale (e.g. 1-strongly disagree to 5-strongly agree)