AP Music Theory Vocabulary

A cappella

Vocal music performed without any instrumental accompaniment.

Example: "The madrigal group performed entirely         , with no instruments supporting the singers."

Accelerando

A tempo marking indicating that the music should gradually become faster.

Similar definitions: accel.

Example: "The composer marked          to indicate the music should speed up through the final measures."

Accent

An emphasis placed on a particular note or beat, indicated by the symbol > above or below a note.

Example: "The drummer placed an          on beat three to create a syncopated feel."

Accidental

A symbol (sharp, flat, natural, double sharp, or double flat) that alters the pitch of a note outside the key signature, applying for the remainder of the measure.

Example: "The composer added an          to raise the seventh scale degree in the harmonic minor scale."

Adagio

A slow and stately tempo marking, typically performed at approximately 66–76 beats per minute.

Example: "The second movement, marked         , gave the performers time to express each lyrical phrase."

Aeolian mode

The sixth mode of the major scale, equivalent to the natural minor scale; it starts on the sixth degree of its relative major and uses the pattern W-H-W-W-H-W-W.

Similar definitions: natural minor, pure minor

Example: "A          on A uses all white keys — the same pitches as C major — and sounds like a natural minor scale."

Alberti bass

A left-hand keyboard accompaniment pattern common in Classical-era music in which the notes of a chord are arpeggiated in a low-high-middle-high pattern, named after Domenico Alberti.

Example: "Mozart used an          in the left hand throughout the piano sonata's first movement."

Allegretto

A tempo marking slightly slower than allegro, indicating a moderately fast and lively pace.

Example: "The second movement was marked         , giving it a lighter, dancing quality than the fast first movement."

Allegro

A fast and lively tempo marking, typically performed at approximately 120–168 beats per minute.

Example: "The first movement was marked         , and the performers set a brisk, energetic pace."

Alto

The lower female voice or the unbroken male voice, ranging between soprano and tenor; also refers to the second-highest part in four-voice SATB writing.

Example: "In the choral arrangement, the          part moved in parallel thirds with the soprano."

Alto clef

A C clef placed on the middle (third) line of the staff, indicating that middle C (C4) is on that line; primarily used for the viola.

Example: "The viola reads from the         , with middle C on the middle line of the staff."

Anacrusis

One or more unstressed notes that precede the first full measure of a piece, creating a pickup into the downbeat.

Similar definitions: pickup, upbeat

Example: "The melody began with an          of three eighth notes before landing on the downbeat."

Andante

A moderate tempo marking meaning "at a walking pace," typically performed at approximately 76–108 beats per minute.

Example: "The theme was marked         , giving it a calm, unhurried character."

Andantino

A tempo marking slightly faster than andante, though sometimes interpreted as slightly slower; generally indicates a moderate, walking pace with added lightness.

Example: "The movement was marked         , slightly brisker than andante, giving it a gentle forward momentum."

Answer (fugue)

In a fugue, the second entry of the subject, which typically appears in the dominant key; a real answer transposes the subject exactly, while a tonal answer adjusts certain intervals to stay in the tonal context.

Example: "After the soprano presented the subject in C major, the alto entered with the          in G major."

Antecedent phrase

The first phrase of a period, which typically ends with a half cadence or other inconclusive cadence, creating a sense of question.

Example: "The          ended on the dominant, leaving the listener expecting a resolution."

Anticipation

A non-chord tone that arrives early, sounding a pitch that belongs to the following chord before that chord actually sounds.

Example: "The soprano note functioned as an          because it belonged to the next chord rather than the current harmony."

Appoggiatura

An accented non-chord tone that resolves by step (usually downward) to a chord tone; it falls on a strong beat and creates a temporary dissonance.

Example: "The          on beat one clashed with the chord before resolving by half step on the weak beat."

Aria

An elaborate, self-contained song for solo voice with instrumental accompaniment, typically found in operas, oratorios, and cantatas.

Example: "The soprano performed a dramatic          that showcased her vocal range at the climax of the opera."

Arpeggiation

The performance of the notes of a chord in rapid succession rather than simultaneously, producing a harp-like effect.

Similar definitions: arpeggio

Example: "The pianist used          in the left hand to accompany the melody."

Arpeggio

The notes of a chord played one at a time in succession (ascending or descending) rather than simultaneously.

Example: "The pianist played the chord as an         , sounding each note from bottom to top."

Asymmetric meter

A time signature in which the beat groupings are unequal (e.g., 5/8 or 7/8), creating an irregular rhythmic pattern that cannot be divided into equal groups of two or three.

Similar definitions: irregular meter, odd meter

Example: "The piece in 7/8 used         , alternating groups of 3+2+2 eighth notes."

Atonality

A compositional approach in which no single pitch is established as a tonal center and all twelve pitches are treated as equally important, as in twelve-tone and free atonal music.

Example: "Schoenberg developed          as a way to move beyond the tonal language of Romanticism."

Augmentation

A compositional technique in which a melodic idea is restated with all note values doubled (or otherwise lengthened), making it sound slower.

Example: "In the fugue's stretto, the subject appeared in         , with each quarter note expanded to a half note."

Augmented fourth

An interval spanning six half steps, equal to a tritone; it is the augmented version of the perfect fourth.

Similar definitions: tritone

Example: "The interval from F to B is an         , historically called the 'devil in music' for its instability."

Augmented interval

An interval that is one half step larger than its corresponding perfect or major interval.

Example: "The          fourth from C to F# spans six half steps, one more than a perfect fourth."

Augmented second

An interval spanning three half steps between two diatonically adjacent notes (e.g., Ab to B); it occurs in the harmonic minor scale between the sixth and seventh scale degrees and has an exotic quality.

Example: "The          between the sixth and seventh degrees of harmonic minor gives that scale its characteristic tension."

Augmented sixth chord

A predominant chord built on the lowered sixth scale degree (in major) that contains an augmented sixth interval, which resolves outward to the dominant. The three types are Italian (It+6), French (Fr+6), and German (Ger+6).

Example: "The          created a dramatic approach to the dominant, with the augmented sixth interval resolving outward by half step."

Augmented triad

A triad built from two stacked major thirds, consisting of a root, major third, and augmented fifth.

Example: "The          on the third scale degree of melodic minor adds a distinctive color to the harmony."

Authentic cadence

A cadence that moves from the dominant chord (V) to the tonic chord (I), providing a strong sense of closure; it is perfect when the soprano ends on scale degree 1.

Similar definitions: PAC (perfect authentic cadence), IAC (imperfect authentic cadence)

Example: "The phrase ended with an         , the V chord resolving to I with the tonic pitch in the soprano."

Bar

A metrical unit of music, bounded by barlines, containing a fixed number of beats as specified by the time signature.

Similar definitions: measure

Example: "Each          in 4/4 time contains four quarter-note beats."

Barline

A vertical line drawn through the staff to divide music into measures, signaling the beginning of a new metric unit.

Example: "A double          marks the end of one section and the beginning of another."

Bass

The lowest male voice type; also refers to the lowest part in a four-voice texture, typically written on the bass staff.

Example: "In SATB writing, the          voice typically carries the chord root to establish the harmony."

Bass clef

A clef that places F3 on the fourth line of the staff, used for lower-pitched instruments such as cello, bassoon, and trombone.

Similar definitions: F clef

Example: "The cello part was written in         , with the F symbol anchoring the fourth line."

Basso continuo

A Baroque performance practice in which a bass instrument plays a written bass line while a chordal instrument (harpsichord, organ, or lute) realizes harmonies indicated by figured bass symbols.

Similar definitions: continuo, thoroughbass

Example: "The Baroque sonata featured a          of harpsichord and cello improvising chords from the figured bass."

Beam

A thick horizontal or diagonal line connecting the stems of two or more eighth notes or smaller note values to group them visually by beat.

Example: "The four sixteenth notes in the measure were grouped under a single         , making it easy to see they fill one beat."

Beam grouping

The practice of connecting notes with beams to reflect the beat structure of the meter, making the rhythm easier to read; for example, grouping eighth notes in pairs in 4/4 time.

Example: "The teacher corrected the student's notation by fixing the          so the beams clearly showed each beat in 6/8 time."

Beat

The basic unit of time in music, providing the underlying pulse to which listeners tap their foot and performers keep time.

Similar definitions: pulse

Example: "In 3/4 time, each          is represented by a quarter note."

Binary form

A two-part musical form (A B) in which each section is typically repeated; simple binary is purely two-part, while rounded binary returns to opening material at the end of the B section.

Example: "The dance movement was in         , with each of its two sections repeated."

Borrowed chord

A chord taken from the parallel major or minor key and used temporarily to add color or variety to the home key.

Similar definitions: modal mixture

Example: "The iv chord in C major was a          from C minor, lending a darker quality to the progression."

Cadence

A harmonic or melodic progression that creates a sense of pause or conclusion at the end of a phrase, functioning as musical punctuation.

Example: "The phrase ended with a strong          on the tonic chord."

Cadential 6/4

A second-inversion tonic chord (I⁶₄) that appears over the dominant bass note, functioning as an embellishment of V rather than as a true tonic chord. The upper voices resolve stepwise down to form V or V7.

Similar definitions: I⁶₄, cadential six-four

Example: "The          preceded the V chord at the cadence, with the sixth and fourth resolving down by step to the fifth and third."

Cadenza

An elaborate, often improvised or written-out passage performed by a soloist, typically near the end of a concerto movement, showcasing the performer's technical skill.

Example: "The pianist's          in the first movement lasted over two minutes, displaying dazzling virtuosity."

Canon

A polyphonic composition or technique in which a melody is imitated exactly by one or more voices entering at regular time intervals.

Example: "Pachelbel's famous          in D major features three violins imitating the same melody two beats apart."

Cantus firmus

A pre-existing melody used as the foundation against which one or more counterpoint voices are composed, central to species counterpoint exercises.

Similar definitions: fixed song

Example: "In the first species exercise, the student wrote one note in the counterpoint voice against each note of the         ."

Chorale

A German Lutheran hymn tune, typically harmonized in four voices (SATB); also refers to harmonizations of such tunes, as in Bach's chorale settings.

Example: "Bach harmonized the          melody in four-part SATB texture, demonstrating masterful voice leading."

Chord

Three or more pitches sounded simultaneously, forming the basic unit of harmony in tonal music.

Example: "The pianist struck a          with three fingers to establish the tonic harmony."

Chord function

The role a chord plays within a key, typically categorized as tonic (stability), predominant (motion toward dominant), or dominant (tension requiring resolution).

Example: "The IV chord serves a predominant         , preparing the ear for the dominant chord."

Chord progression

A series of chords sounding in succession, forming the harmonic foundation of a passage or piece. Common progressions include I–IV–V–I and I–vi–IV–V.

Example: "The          I–IV–V–I established the key clearly and provided harmonic direction."

Chord symbol

A shorthand notation using letter names, accidentals, and suffixes (e.g., Cm7, Gdim, Fmaj7) to indicate a chord's root and quality, commonly used in jazz and popular music.

Example: "The          'Dm7' tells the performer to play a D minor seventh chord."

Chordal texture

A texture in which all voices or instruments move together in the same rhythm, also called homorhythmic or chorale texture.

Similar definitions: homorhythmic texture, block chord texture

Example: "The opening passage was in a         , with all four voices moving together on each beat."

Chromatic

Relating to pitches or intervals that do not belong to the prevailing diatonic scale, moving in half steps.

Example: "The composer added a          passing tone to create a smoother voice-leading connection between two chords."

Chromatic harmony

The use of chords or tones that include pitches outside the prevailing diatonic scale, adding color, tension, and expressiveness beyond what diatonic harmony provides.

Example: "Wagner's          in Tristan und Isolde blurs the sense of key through constantly shifting accidentals and altered chords."

Chromatic scale

A scale consisting of all twelve half steps within an octave, using every pitch available in Western equal temperament.

Example: "The          from C to C includes twelve distinct pitches before returning to C."

Church modes

The eight modal scales used in medieval and Renaissance music (Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian, Mixolydian, Aeolian, Locrian, Ionian, and their plagal variants), each starting on a different degree of the diatonic scale.

Similar definitions: modes, ecclesiastical modes

Example: "Gregorian chant was organized according to the         , each giving a different character to the melody."

Circle of fifths

A diagram arranging the twelve major and minor keys in a circular pattern based on their relationship by perfect fifth, showing the progression of key signatures.

Example: "Moving clockwise around the         , each key adds one sharp to its key signature."

Clef

A symbol placed at the beginning of a staff that assigns a specific pitch to one line, thereby fixing the pitch of all other lines and spaces.

Example: "The treble          places G4 on the second line of the staff."

Climax

The high point of a melody or phrase, typically the highest pitch and the moment of greatest tension or intensity, usually approached gradually and left by descent.

Example: "The          of the melody arrived on a high D, marked forte, before the phrase descended back to the tonic."

Close position

A chord voicing in which the upper three voices (soprano, alto, tenor) are placed as closely together as possible, spanning less than an octave.

Similar definitions: close spacing

Example: "In         , the soprano, alto, and tenor notes of the C major chord fit within a single octave."

Coda

A concluding passage added to the end of a movement or piece, providing a definitive sense of closure after the main structure is complete.

Example: "The symphony's          reinforced the tonic key with repeated cadential progressions before the final chord."

Coda sign

A symbol (a circle with a crosshair) indicating the point in a score where the music jumps to the coda section, used with D.S. al Coda or D.C. al Coda instructions.

Similar definitions: coda mark

Example: "The performers jumped to the          at the end of the second verse, skipping to the closing passage."

Codetta

A brief closing passage at the end of a section (such as the exposition of a sonata form), smaller in scope than a coda.

Example: "A short          confirmed the new key at the end of the exposition."

Common chord modulation

A modulation technique that uses a pivot chord — a chord common to both the original and the new key — to transition smoothly between keys.

Similar definitions: pivot chord modulation

Example: "The          used the IV chord of C major (which is also the I chord of F major) to shift smoothly to F major."

Common time

The time signature 4/4, indicating four quarter-note beats per measure; often notated with a C symbol instead of the fraction.

Example: "Most marches are written in         , with a strong accent on beat one and a secondary accent on beat three."

Common tone

A note that is shared between two successive chords, often held in the same voice to create smooth voice leading.

Example: "When moving from C major to A minor, the notes C and E serve as         s, allowing for a smooth connection."

Compound interval

An interval larger than an octave, such as a ninth, tenth, or thirteenth, which is an octave plus a simple interval.

Example: "A major tenth is a          equivalent to an octave plus a major third."

Compound melody

A single melodic line that implies two or more voices through large leaps, creating the impression of multiple independent lines in one part, common in Baroque unaccompanied works.

Example: "Bach's solo violin partitas are full of         , one line implying two voices through wide alternating leaps."

Compound meter

A meter in which each beat divides naturally into three equal parts, such as 6/8, 9/8, or 12/8.

Example: "In         , the dotted quarter note receives one beat and divides into three eighth notes."

Conjunct motion

Melodic movement by step (half step or whole step), creating a smooth, connected melodic line.

Similar definitions: stepwise motion

Example: "The lyrical melody moved mostly in         , ascending the scale one degree at a time."

Consequent phrase

The second phrase of a period, which typically ends with an authentic cadence, answering and completing the antecedent phrase.

Example: "The          resolved to the tonic, providing the satisfying conclusion promised by the antecedent."

Consonance

An interval or chord that sounds stable, resolved, and restful, requiring no further motion; in tonal theory, perfect unisons, thirds, fifths, sixths, and octaves are consonant.

Example: "The perfect fifth is considered a strong          because of its stable, open sound."

Contour

The overall shape of a melody as it rises and falls over time, described as ascending, descending, arch-shaped, wave-like, or static.

Similar definitions: melodic contour

Example: "The melody's          arched upward to a climax in the third measure and then descended to a cadence."

Contrary motion

Voice leading in which two voices move in opposite directions simultaneously, one ascending while the other descends.

Example: "The soprano and bass moved in         , spreading outward from a unison to an octave."

Countermelody

A secondary melody that sounds simultaneously with and complements the main melody, adding textural interest.

Example: "The trumpet played the main theme while the flute added a florid          above it."

Counterpoint

The technique of combining two or more independent melodic lines that sound simultaneously, each maintaining its own rhythmic and melodic identity.

Example: "Bach's two-part inventions are exercises in         , with two voices weaving around each other."

Crescendo

A gradual increase in dynamic level, indicated by a hairpin symbol opening to the right or the abbreviation cresc.

Example: "The orchestra built a          over sixteen measures, arriving at a fortissimo climax."

Cut time

The time signature 2/2, indicating two half-note beats per measure, often notated with a C symbol with a vertical line through it; music in cut time feels twice as fast as common time.

Similar definitions: alla breve

Example: "The march was written in          so it would feel like a quick two-beat pattern."

Da capo

An instruction to return to the beginning of the piece and repeat from the start, often followed by "al fine" (to the end) or "al coda" (to the coda sign).

Similar definitions: D.C.

Example: "The aria was performed with a          repeat, returning to the A section after the contrasting B section."

Dal segno

An instruction to return to a specific sign (§) in the score and repeat from that point, rather than from the very beginning.

Similar definitions: D.S.

Example: "The performer followed the          marking and jumped back to the sign rather than the beginning."

Deceptive cadence

A cadence in which the dominant chord (V or V7) resolves unexpectedly to a chord other than the tonic, most commonly to vi (in major) or VI (in minor), thwarting the listener's expectation of resolution.

Similar definitions: DC, interrupted cadence

Example: "Instead of resolving to I, the V chord moved to vi in a         , surprising the listener and extending the phrase."

Decrescendo

A gradual decrease in dynamic level, indicated by a hairpin symbol closing to the right or the abbreviation decresc.

Similar definitions: diminuendo, dim.

Example: "The strings played a long         , fading from forte to pianissimo over eight measures."

Development

The second section of sonata form, in which themes from the exposition are fragmented, combined, and transformed through modulation and harmonic instability.

Example: "The          section moved through several distant keys as the first theme was broken into short motives."

Diatonic

Relating to pitches, intervals, or chords that belong to a particular major or minor scale without chromatic alteration.

Example: "All seven chords built on the          scale degrees of C major use only the white keys of the piano."

Diatonic seventh chord

A seventh chord built entirely from pitches of the prevailing key, using only scale degrees without accidentals.

Example: "The ii7 is a          in major keys, consisting of the second, fourth, sixth, and first scale degrees."

Diatonic triad

A triad built entirely from the pitches of a given key, without chromatic alteration; in major keys, the seven diatonic triads are I, ii, iii, IV, V, vi, and vii°.

Example: "The iii chord is a          in major, built from the third, fifth, and seventh scale degrees."

Diminished interval

An interval that is one half step smaller than its corresponding perfect or minor interval.

Example: "The          fifth from B to F spans six half steps and is highly dissonant."

Diminished seventh chord

A seventh chord consisting of a root, minor third, diminished fifth, and diminished seventh (three stacked minor thirds), highly dissonant and often functioning as a leading-tone chord.

Similar definitions: fully diminished seventh

Example: "The          chord on the leading tone created intense tension before resolving to the tonic."

Diminished triad

A triad built from two stacked minor thirds, consisting of a root, minor third, and diminished fifth; it has an unstable, dissonant quality.

Example: "The vii° chord is a          that functions as a leading-tone chord in major keys."

Diminuendo

A direction to gradually decrease in volume, synonymous with decrescendo.

Similar definitions: decrescendo, dim.

Example: "The clarinet solo ended with a         , fading to nearly nothing on the last note."

Diminution

A compositional technique in which a melodic idea is restated with all note values halved (or otherwise shortened), making it sound faster.

Example: "The fugue subject appeared in          in the stretto, with each half note compressed to a quarter note."

Disjunct motion

Melodic movement by leap (an interval larger than a whole step), creating a more angular or dramatic melodic contour.

Similar definitions: leaping motion

Example: "The trumpet fanfare moved in         , leaping upward by fourths and fifths."

Dissonance

An interval or chord that sounds unstable, tense, or unresolved, typically requiring motion to a consonance; seconds, sevenths, and tritones are dissonant.

Example: "The suspension created a moment of          before resolving down by step to a chord tone."

Dominant

The fifth scale degree of a major or minor scale; also the chord built on that degree (V), which creates tension that strongly resolves to the tonic (I).

Example: "The phrase arrived on the          chord at the half cadence, leaving a sense of expectation."

Dominant function

The harmonic role of chords built on or containing the leading tone (V, V7, vii°) that create tension and a strong need to resolve to the tonic.

Example: "Both V and vii° share         , with the leading tone B in C major pulling strongly toward C."

Dominant seventh chord

A major triad with a minor seventh added above the root, built on the fifth scale degree (V7); it is the most common seventh chord in tonal music and strongly resolves to I.

Example: "The          in G major contains B, D, F, and G, all pulling toward C major."

Dorian mode

A mode built on the second scale degree of the major scale, resembling a natural minor scale with a raised sixth scale degree.

Example: "D          (D E F G A B C D) differs from D natural minor only by its raised B natural."

Dot

A symbol placed after a note or rest that increases its duration by one half of the original value.

Example: "A          after a quarter note creates a dotted quarter worth one and a half beats."

Double bar

Two vertical lines at the end of a composition or section; a thin-thin double bar indicates a section break, while a thin-thick double bar indicates the end of a piece.

Example: "The          at the end of the movement signaled the conclusion of the piece."

Double flat

An accidental (bb) that lowers a pitch by two half steps (one whole step).

Example: "The note B with a          sounds enharmonically the same as A natural."

Double period

A phrase structure consisting of four phrases (two antecedent-consequent pairs), in which the first pair ends with a weak cadence and the second pair with a strong cadence.

Example: "The sixteen-measure theme was organized as a         , with the first eight measures ending on the dominant and the second on the tonic."