AP Gov Memorization

Articles of Confederation

Created a weak central government; no power to tax; required unanimous consent to amend; exposed by Shay’s Rebellion.

The original governing document created a weak central government that struggled to unify the states and manage national issues.

United States Constitution

Established a strong federal government with three branches; replaced the Articles of Confederation; includes the Bill of Rights.

Drafted to replace the Articles, it established a stronger federal system with checks and balances, separation of powers, and a Bill of Rights.

Bill of Rights

First 10 amendments protecting individual rights; added to help ratify the Constitution.

Federalist No.10

James Madison argued that a large republic controls factions and protects minority rights.

Argued that a large republic would best control factions and prevent tyranny by diluting their influence across many interests.

Brutus No.1

Robert Yates warned that a large centralized government would threaten personal liberties.

• Anti Federalist

Warned that a large national government would be too powerful and threaten state authority and individual freedoms.

Federalist No.51

James Madison discussed separation of powers and checks and balances to prevent tyranny.

Federalist No.70

Alexander Hamilton argued for a single, strong executive to ensure accountability and energy in leadership.

Federalist No.78

Alexander Hamilton emphasized judicial independence and the principle of judicial review as a check on the legislative and executive branch.

Declaration of Independence

Document written by Jefferson declaring natural rights and independence from Britain; based on popular sovereignty.

Colonial leaders justified separating from Britain by listing grievances and asserting natural rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.

Letters from Birmingham Jail

Martin Luther King Jr. defended nonviolent protest; called for immediate civil rights action; tied to the 14th Amendment.

• Equal Protection Clause

Martin Luther King Jr. responded to criticism of his civil disobedience, defending nonviolent protest as a moral obligation to fight unjust laws.

Engel v. Vitale (1962)

State-sponsored prayer in public schools violates the Establishment Clause of the 1st Amendment.

• Establishment Clause

A New York school’s daily, voluntary prayer sparked debate over the Establishment Clause and religion in public schools.

Schenck v. United States (1919)

Speech creating a "clear and present danger" is not protected by the 1st Amendment during wartime.

• Espionage Act

• Free Speech Clause

A man was convicted under the Espionage Act for distributing anti-draft leaflets during WWI, testing limits on speech during wartime.

Wisconsin v. Yoder (1972)

Amish parents’ right to religious freedom under the 1st Amendment outweighed state interests in compulsory education.

• Free Exercise Clause

Amish parents refused to send their children to school beyond 8th grade, citing religious beliefs in conflict with state compulsory education laws.

Tinker v. Des Moines (1969)

Students retain 1st Amendment rights at school; armbands protesting Vietnam War were protected symbolic speech.

• Free Speech Clause

Students were suspended for wearing black armbands to protest the Vietnam War, raising First Amendment free speech issues

Gideon v. Wainwright (1963)

The 6th Amendment guarantees the right to an attorney for defendants in state courts.

• 6th Amendment

• Due Process

• Right to an Attorney

A man charged with felony theft in Florida was denied an attorney, leading to a challenge on the right to legal counsel.

New York Times v. United States (1971)

Government cannot use prior restraint to block publication unless it poses immediate harm; protects freedom of press.

• Freedom of the Press

• Pentagon Papers

The government tried to block publication of the Pentagon Papers, raising First Amendment concerns over prior restraint.

Brown v. Board of Education (1954)

Segregated schools violate the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment; overturned "separate but equal."

• Equal Protection Clause

A class-action suit against school segregation challenged the “separate but equal” doctrine established by Plessy v. Ferguson.

Citizens United v. FEC (2010)

Political spending by corporations and unions is protected speech under the 1st Amendment; led to rise of Super PACs.

• Free Speech Clause

A nonprofit wanted to air a film critical of Hillary Clinton, prompting debate over campaign finance laws and free speech for corporations.

Baker v. Carr (1962)

Established "one person, one vote" and allowed federal courts to hear redistricting cases under the 14th Amendment.

• Equal Protection Clause

Tennessee citizens sued over outdated legislative districts, questioning whether courts could rule on apportionment issues.

Marbury v. Madison (1803)

Established judicial review; the Supreme Court can declare laws unconstitutional.

• Judicial Review

John Adams’ midnight judicial appointments led to a dispute over delivering commissions, prompting the Court to assert its power of judicial review.

Shaw v. Reno (1993)

Racial gerrymandering violates the Equal Protection Clause; race cannot be the sole factor in redistricting.

• Equal Protection Clause

• Secure the election of a black representative

North Carolina’s oddly shaped majority-minority district led to a case on racial gerrymandering and Equal Protection.

U.S. v. Lopez (1995)

Congress exceeded its authority under the Commerce Clause; limited federal power; gun-free school zones are state matters.

• Commerce Clause

• Limited Federal Power

A high school student brought a gun to school, challenging Congress’s use of the Commerce Clause to regulate gun possession near schools.

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

Established that Congress has implied powers and states cannot tax federal institutions; strengthened federal authority.

• Necessary and Proper Clause

• Supremacy Clause

• Strengthened Federal Power

______ tried to tax a federal bank, raising questions about federal supremacy and the scope of the Necessary and Proper Clause.

McDonald v. Chicago

The Supreme Court ruled that the Second Amendment right to keep and bear arms applies to state and local governments through the Fourteenth Amendment’s Due Process Clause

• Second Amendment

• Due Process Clause

A Chicago handgun ban was contested, questioning whether the Second Amendment applied to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment

1st Amendment

Freedom of religion, speech, press, assembly, and petition.

2nd Amendment

Right to keep and bear arms.

3rd Amendment

No quartering of soldiers in private homes without consent.

4th Amendment

Protection against unreasonable searches and seizures.

5th Amendment

Right to due process, protection against double jeopardy, self-incrimination, and eminent domain.

6th Amendment

Right to a fair and speedy public trial, to an impartial jury, to be informed of charges, and to legal counsel.

7th Amendment

Right to a jury trial in civil cases.

8th Amendment

Protection against excessive bail, fines, and cruel and unusual punishment.

9th Amendment

Rights not specifically listed in the Constitution are still protected.

10th Amendment

Powers not given to the federal government are reserved to the states or the people.

13th Amendment

Abolished slavery and involuntary servitude.

14th Amendment

Guaranteed citizenship to all born or naturalized in the U.S.; Equal Protection Clause and Due Process Clause.

15th Amendment

Prohibits denying the right to vote based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude.

17th Amendment

Established the direct election of U.S. Senators by the people.

19th Amendment

Gave women the right to vote.

22nd Amendment

Limits the president to two terms in office.

24th Amendment

Abolished the poll tax in federal elections.

26th Amendment

Lowered the voting age to 18.

Popular Sovereignty

Idea that the government's power comes from the consent of the governed.

Limited Government

Government powers are restricted by law to protect individual rights.

Republicanism

Political system where people elect representatives to govern on their behalf.

Social Contract

People give up some freedom to a government in exchange for protection of natural rights.

Natural Rights

Rights inherent to humans: life, liberty, and property (or pursuit of happiness).

Separation of Powers

Dividing government power among legislative, executive, and judicial branches.

Checks and Balances

System where each branch of government limits the power of the others.

Federalism

System of government where power is shared between national and state governments.

Supremacy Clause

Federal law is the supreme law of the land over state laws.

Necessary and Proper Clause (Elastic Clause)

Congress can make all laws necessary and proper to carry out its powers.

Commerce Clause

Congress has power to regulate trade between states and with foreign nations.

Full Faith and Credit Clause

States must recognize and respect the laws and judgments of other states.

Establishment Clause

Congress cannot establish an official religion.

Free Exercise Clause

Citizens have the right to practice their religion freely.

Due Process Clause

Protects individuals from unfair treatment by the government (5th and 14th Amendments).

Equal Protection Clause

Requires states to guarantee equal rights and protection to all people.

Judicial Activism

Courts should actively interpret and enforce the Constitution to address societal needs.

Judicial Restraint

Courts should interpret the Constitution as it is written and defer policy making to legislatures.

Precedent

Previous court rulings that guide future case decisions.

Stare Decisis

The principle that courts should follow established precedent.

Writ of Certiorari

A formal request for the Supreme Court to hear a lower court case.

Amicus Curiae Brief

"Friend of the court" briefs filed by outside parties to influence a court decision.

Political Socialization

Process by which individuals learn political beliefs and values.

Political Efficacy

Belief that one's political participation makes a difference.

Critical Elections

Elections that cause significant party realignment or shift in power.

Party Realignment

When a large group of voters switches political party loyalty.

Dealignment

When voters abandon major political parties and become independents.

Interest Groups

Organizations that try to influence public policy and elections.

PACs (Political Action Committees)

Groups that raise money to support candidates or legislation.

Iron Triangles

Relationship between bureaucracy, congressional committees, and interest groups.

Issue Networks

Loose alliances of groups and individuals promoting a particular issue.

Filibuster

Tactic in the Senate to delay a vote by talking continuously.

Cloture

Vote to end a filibuster; requires 60 votes in the Senate.

Hold

Procedure where a senator temporarily blocks the consideration of a bill or nomination.

Logrolling

Trading votes between legislators to get bills passed.

Pork Barrel Spending

Government spending on localized projects to bring money to a representative's district.

Discharge Petition

Procedure to force a bill out of committee for a floor vote in the House.

Gerrymandering

Manipulating voting district boundaries to favor a political party.

Mandatory Spending (Entitlement)

Federal spending required by law, like Social Security and Medicare.

Discretionary Spending

Federal spending that Congress must approve annually, like defense and education.

Bureaucracy

a system of government in which most of the important decisions are made by state officials rather than by elected representatives.

Executive Orders

Directives issued by the president that have the force of law.

Signing Statements

President’s written interpretation of a bill upon signing it into law.

Executive Agreements

International agreements made by the president that do not require Senate approval.

Electoral College

System used to elect the U.S. president; each state gets electors based on representation.

Winner-Take-All System

System where the candidate with the most votes gets all the electoral votes in a state.

Hard Money

Political donations regulated by law through the FEC.

Soft Money

Unregulated money given to parties for "party-building" activities.

Judicial Review

Power of the courts to examine the constitutionality of laws and actions of the exutive and legislative branch

Retrospective Voting

Voting based on a candidate's past performance.

Prospective Voting

Voting based on predictions of how a candidate will perform in the future.

Fiscal Policy

Government decisions about taxation and spending to influence the economy.

Monetary Policy

Actions by the Federal Reserve to control the money supply and interest rates.

Entitlement Programs (Or Spending)

Government programs providing benefits to qualified individuals regardless of need.

Civil Rights

Protections against discrimination based on characteristics like race, gender, or disability.

Civil Liberties

Protections from government actions that infringe on freedoms (like speech or religion).

Affirmative Action

Policy efforts to address past discrimination through proactive measures in education and employment.

Selective Incorporation

process by which the Supreme Court applies parts of the Bill of Rights to the states using the Due Process Clause of the 14th Amendment