Biology Finals Study Guide - Chapters 7-19

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering biology topics including cell transport, photosynthesis, respiration, mitosis, meiosis, genetics, DNA/RNA, and evolution.

Cell

The level of organization where similar specialized cells work together to form tissue.

Tissue

A group of different types of tissues working together to form an organ.

Organ

A group of organs working together to form an organ system.

Organ System

Multiple organs working together to form an organism.

Organism

The highest level of cell organization.

Selectively Permeable

A property of a membrane that allows some molecules to pass through while blocking others.

Concentration Gradient

The difference in the amount of a substance across a space, such as from one side of the cell membrane to the other.

Passive Transport

Transport where cells use no energy and movement goes with the concentration gradient.

Active Transport

Transport where cells use energy to move substances against the concentration gradient.

Simple Diffusion

The movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.

Facilitated Diffusion

The movement of materials across a cell membrane through specific transport proteins.

Channel Protein

Proteins that form channels to allow specific molecules to pass through the membrane.

Carrier Protein

Proteins that change shape to allow substances to pass through the membrane.

Gate Protein

Proteins that require a 'key' to open a channel to allow specific molecules through.

Osmosis

The diffusion of water across the cell membrane through aquaporins.

Hypotonic

A state where there are more dissolved substances inside the cell than outside, causing water to move into the cell and make it swell.

Hypertonic

A state where there are more dissolved substances outside the cell than inside, causing water to move out of the cell and make it shrivel.

Isotonic

A state where dissolved substances are the same on both sides of the membrane, resulting in no osmosis.

Protein Pump

A carrier protein that changes shape to release particles on the other side of the cell membrane.

Endocytosis

A process where the cell surrounds and takes in material from the environment by forming a vacuole.

Phagocytosis

A type of endocytosis where the cell takes in larger particles like food.

Pinocytosis

A type of endocytosis where the cell takes in smaller particles like liquids.

Exocytosis

The removal of materials from the cell as a vacuole combines with the cell membrane.

Ligands

Molecules that send chemical signals to cells.

Receptor

A structure cells must have to receive signals from ligands.

Gap Junction

Channels between neighboring cells made of connexins that allow the transport of signal molecules and water.

Connexins

Membrane proteins that form donut-like structures called connexons.

Tight Junctions

Sites where cells are held tightly together by claudins to create a watertight seal between adjacent animal cells.

Desmosomes

Connections that use cadherins to hold cells together during stretching to prevent tissue tearing.

Paracrine Signaling

Cell signaling over short distances using growth factors as ligands.

Autocrine Signaling

A process where a cell signals to itself using growth factors, cytokines, or neurotransmitters.

Synaptic Signaling

Signaling where nerve cells fire electrical impulses and release neurotransmitters across a synapse.

Endocrine Signaling

Long-distance signaling through the bloodstream using hormones as ligands.

ATP Components

The three parts of an ATP molecule: Adenine, Phosphate groups, and Ribose.

Photosynthesis Equation

$$6H_2O + 6CO_2 + \text{Light Energy} = C_6H_{12}O_6 + 6O_2$$

Photolysis

The splitting of water using energy to produce 2 electrons, oxygen, and hydrogen ions.

Chemiosmosis

The generation of ATP by the movement of hydrogen ions across the thylakoid membrane.

Rubisco

An enzyme that combines $CO_2$ with RuBP to form an unstable 6-Carbon sugar in the light-independent reactions.

PGA

The sugar molecules formed when Rubisco breaks down the unstable 6-Carbon sugar.

PGAL/G3P

The molecules formed when NADPH and ATP change PGA during the Calvin Cycle.

Cell Respiration Equation

$$C_6H_{12}O_6 + 6O_2 = 6H_2O + 6CO_2 + \text{Light Energy}$$

Glycolysis

An anaerobic process in the cytoplasm where glucose is split into 2 pyruvic acids, producing a net gain of $2$ ATP.

Krebs Cycle

A stage of cell respiration in the mitochondria producing $CO_2$, NADH, $2$ ATP, and $FADH_2$.

Oxidative Phosphorylation

The stage of cell respiration that produces $32$ ATP using the energy from electrons moving down the transport chain.

Aerobic

A process that occurs with oxygen.

Anaerobic

A process that occurs without oxygen.

Lactic Acid Fermentation

An anaerobic process in the liver that converts pyruvic acid into lactic acid and $NAD^+$.

Alcohol Fermentation

An anaerobic process that converts pyruvic acid into ethanol, $CO_2$, and $NAD^+$.

Interphase

The cell cycle phase consisting of $G_1$ (growth), $S$ (DNA replication), and $G_2$ (organelle growth).

Prophase

The mitosis stage where chromosomes condense, spindle fibers form, and the nuclear membrane disappears.

Metaphase

The mitosis stage where spindle fibers attach to centromeres and chromosomes line up on the equator.

Anaphase

The mitosis stage where sister chromatids are pulled apart to opposite poles.

Telophase

The mitosis stage where chromosomes decondense, the nuclear membrane reappears, and the cell begins to pinch.

Cytokinesis

The final stage of the cell cycle where the cytoplasm divides to create two identical daughter cells.

Chromatin

DNA coiled around histone proteins.

Chromosome

Chromatin that has become supercoiled.

Kinetochores

Proteins located in the centromere where spindle fibers attach.

Cyclin

Activating proteins that help regulate the timing of the cell cycle.

CDK

Enzymes that must combine with cyclin to signal a cell is ready for the next stage.

Apoptosis

A process of programmed cell death involving controlled steps for self-destruction.

Totipotent

Stem cells that can give rise to all 220 cell types in an embryo.

Pluripotent

Stem cells that can form almost every cell type in the body except the placenta.

Multipotent

Unspecialized cells that can develop into different cell types within their tissue of origin.

Crossing Over

The exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes during Prophase I of meiosis.

Independent Assortment

The random lining up of tetrads at the equator during Metaphase I, creating genetic variation.

Haploid

A cell containing only one kind of each chromosome, typical of gametes.

Diploid

A cell containing two kinds of each chromosome, typical of body cells.

Tetrad

The structure formed by two homologous chromosomes joined together during meiosis.

Nondisjunction

The failure of homologous chromosomes to separate properly, leading to trisomy or monosomy.

Parthenogenesis

A form of asexual reproduction where an embryo develops from an unfertilized egg.

Homozygous

When an organism has two identical alleles for a specific trait.

Heterozygous

When an organism has two different alleles for a specific trait.

Phenotype

The outward physical appearance or behavior of an organism.

Genotype

The specific allele combination an organism contains.

Incomplete Dominance

Inheritance where two heterozygous organisms form a mix of traits, such as red and white flowers producing pink.

Codominance

Inheritance where both alleles are expressed equally in the phenotype.

Polygenic Inheritance

Traits that are controlled by the interaction of two or more genes.

Helicase

The enzyme that unzips the DNA double helix by breaking hydrogen bonds.

DNA Polymerase III

The enzyme that inserts new complementary bases and builds the DNA backbone.

DNA Polymerase I

The enzyme that proofreads the DNA sequence and replaces RNA primers.

Transcription

The process of making an RNA molecule from a portion of DNA in the nucleus.

Translation

The process of converting the sequence of nitrogenous bases in mRNA into a sequence of amino acids.

Codon

A set of three bases on mRNA that codes for a specific amino acid.

Anticodon

A set of three bases on tRNA that is complementary to an mRNA codon.

Frameshift Mutation

A mutation caused by the insertion or deletion of a base, shifting the reading frame of the genetic code.

Homologous Structures

Anatomical structures that are similar in structure but differ in function.

Analogous Structures

Anatomical structures that differ in structure but function similarly.

Vestigial Structure

A body structure that no longer serves a purpose in a modern organism.

Endosymbiont Theory

The theory that ancient prokaryotes formed a symbiotic relationship with eukaryotes, evidenced by mitochondria and chloroplasts having their own DNA.

Half-life

The amount of time it takes for half of the radioactive isotope atoms in a sample to decay.

Gradualism

An evolutionary rate that occurs slowly and steadily over time.

Punctuated Equilibrium

An evolutionary rate characterized by brief periods of rapid change separated by long periods of little change.