psychology - memory

memory

the ability to store and retrieve information

encoding

process of getting information into the brain

storage

process of retaining info that we get into our brain

retrieval

process of retrieving information so that we can use it

encoding --> storage --> retrieval

order of processing

Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968)

two people credited with suggesting that memory goes through three stages

sensory memory

initial momentary storage of information, uses the 5 senses to obtain information about the environment

lasts an instant (1-2 seconds)

how long sensory memory lasts

snapshots

concept that sensory memory is related to

decay, displacement

happens when sensory memory is not passed on

decay

lost over time

displacement

removing the memory entirely

short-term memory

memory that holds meaningful information for short periods of time (where we store/ process information that we are actively thinking about)

rehearsal

repetition of a concept, number, etc. that helps retain it to memory; necessary for information to enter long-term memory

information

will leave short-term memory if not rehearsed

less than 30 seconds (2-18 sec)

how long short-term memory usually lasts

7 (+/-) 2 items

capacity of short-term memory

long-term memory

memory that stores information on a relatively permanent basis, appears to have a limitless capacity, file and coded so we can retrieve it when needed

automatic processing

memory skips the first two stages of memory and enters long-term memory automatically

selective attention

selected information in the environment that is important to us

more complex

the nature of short-term memory

Brown (1958) & Peterson (1959)

work conducted by two individuals who found that when people cannot rehearse (practice), information dissipates from short term memory in about 18 seconds

Conrad (1964) & Wickelgren (1965)

discovered the phonological similarity effect; items that sounded similar were harder for people to remember than items that did not sound alike

Atkinson's & Shriffrin's model (dual-track memory)

focus on how we process explicit memories

explicit (declarative) memories

conscious, effortful processing of information, memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare.” It is controlled consciously, intentionally, and flexibly.

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

implicit (nondeclarative) memories

occur with no conscious effort, info skips conscious encoding track and barges right into storage... retention independent of conscious recollection, influences our current perceptions and behavior without our knowledge, awareness, or intention.

automatic encoding

happens unconsciously with little to no effort, difficult to shut off

space, time, and frequency

automatically encode information like

effortful encoding

requires attention and conscious effort (usually needs rehearsal)

next-in-line (effortful encoding memory effect)

when your recall is better for what other people say but poor for a person just before you in line.
ex. when you have had to read aloud in class…you are worried about what you have to read & not paying attention to what the person before you said

spacing effect (effortful encoding memory effect)

retain info better when rehearsal is distributed over time
ex. studies have shown that if you study a bit each night, you’ll remember the information better than if you cram the night before a test

serial position effect (effortful encoding memory effect)

when your recall is better for first and last items, but poor for middle items on a list.
ex. write down as many U.S. Presidents names you can remember

mnemonic devices & chunking

ways to increase effortful encoding

mnemonic devices

memory aid, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices; an effortful processing strategy to remember new information

method of loci & peg-word

two types mnemonic devices

method of loci

involves imagining moving through a familiar series of locations with items to be remembered

peg-word

memorize a jingle, then associate the jingle with a list trying to remember, even better if can visualize items trying to remember

chunking

grouping information into smaller bits instead of looking at the whole concept

acronym

another way to chunk information and remember it.
PEMDAS = Parentheses, Exponent, Multiply, Divide, Add, Subtract

active processing

visualizing what you are trying to remember, actively trying to put it into your memory

passive processing

just trying to memorize, no real processing; only need to remember right now

multiple systems model

suggests that memory is not a single, one-way system that relies on one neuroanatomical circuit; rather memory is made up of multiple memory systems that can work independently of one another... includes declarative and nondeclarative memory

subsystems of declarative (explicit) memory

short-term memory, episodic memory, semantic memory

subsystems of nondeclarative (implicit) memory

priming, conditioning, motor/ procedural memory

hippocampus and frontal lobes

where explicit memory is mediated

explicit memory tests; recall and recognition (individual knows they're being tested)

how explicit memory is measured

difficult forming new long-term declarative memories

occurs when hippocampus is damaged

experience deficits in short-term memory

occurs when frontal lobe is damaged

it declines

happens to explicit/ declarative when you age

- mental calculations, such as figuring a tip
- retaining info, such as dialing a phone number
- processing information, such as listening to the newscast
- temporarily process info we have previously learned in a class and access it to learn and associate new info

ways short-term memory can be used

semantic

long-term memory that stores general knowledge (vocab, 2+2=4...)

episodic memory

long-term memory system that stores info about specific events or episodes related to one’s own life

exposing participants to material and then testing that memory.
ex. participants could be shown pictures of 20 simple objects and then asked to name them.

how episodic memory is tested

flashbulb memory

unique and highly emotional moment can give rise to clear, strong, and persistent memory... not free from errors

implicit memory test in which the individual is unaware he/ she is taking a memory test

how implicit memory is tested

cortical areas, cerebellum, and basal ganglia

where implicit memory is mediated

impairs visual priming

occurs when there is damage to cortical areas

impair classical conditioning and procedural memory

occurs when there is damage to the cerebellum and basal ganglia

anterograde amnesia

an inability to for new, long-term declarative memories, and seemingly could not form new memories... helped discover how damage to certain parts of the brain can affect implicit memory

remains relatively the same

happens to implicit/ nondeclarative when you age

priming

automatic or unconscious process that can enhance the speed and accuracy of a response as a result of past experience, helps trigger associated concepts or memories, making the retrieval process more efficient

repetition priming

example of priming... faster reading the word “pretzel” aloud when you have just recently read it

semantic priming

example of priming.... faster and more likely to say the word “nurse” when you have just recently read the word “doctor”

procedural memory

memory for the process involved in completing a task (e.g. motor memory) after the task is well learned and has become automatic.
Examples: playing the piano, typing, and hitting a tennis ball.

classical conditioning

the memory for association formed between two stimuli.
example: Pavlov’s dog

sensory register

memory system that works for a very brief period of time that stores a record of information received by receptor cells until the information is selected for further processing or discarded

iconic memory

visual information; photographic memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a sec

echoic memory

auditory information; attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled w/in 3-4 sec

1150-500 msec for visual information
1-2 sec for auditory information

duration for iconic and echoic memory

keep info around (briefly) for further processing... processing takes time, and it’s helpful to have an initial store that maintains the presented information beyond its physical duration

purpose of sensory memory

george sperling

researched evidence of a visual sensory register, used whole report vs partial report method

whole report method

Participants viewed a 3x4 matrix of letters & were asked to report either the entire matrix

partial report method

Participants viewed a 3x4 matrix of letters & were asked to report one random line

physical cue

participants were trained to link different auditory tones (high, medium, and low) with different lines in the matrix (top, middle, bottom) so they knew to report the top line when they heard a high tone

semantic cue

participants required they process the items in the row before responding (i.e. reporting all the vowels)

Chase & Simon

showed that when people are given 5 seconds to view the arrangement of pieces in a chess game, chess experts remember nearly all the pieces while non-experts remember on average only 9 of 32 pieces... when the pieces lose meaningful groupings, the experts’ short term memory capacity is similar to that of others

acoustically

most common form of encoding in short term memory

Conrad & Wicklegren

demonstrated phonological similarity effect

phonological similarity effect

more difficult to remember items that sound alike (e.g., T, C, B, V, E) than items that do not sound alike (e.g., T, L, X)

Chase & Ericsson

demonstrated that a male subject who was a runner started with an average memory span for digits (7 plus or minus 2 digits), but with practice and chunking, he could recall up to 80 digits presented to him randomly at a rate of 1 per second. He did this by converting the numbers into running times. Even after his training with numbers, his memory span for letters was average

primacy effect

concept that the first items in a list receive a great deal of rehearsal, and are, thus, more likely to be transferred into long-term memory... not affected by a distractor task presented after the list is presented... diminished when list items are presented at a fast rate

distractor task

a task not related to the task currently taking place... occurs more commonly during different memory tests

recency effect

concept that people tend to report the last items of a list first while those items are still in their short term memory...not affected by the rate of speed a list is presented... can be eliminated if a distractor task is presented immediately after the list is presented and before recall is required

prospective memory

memory for tasks to be completed in the future

a person must not only remember that she or he must complete a task, but also remember what that task is

how does prospective memory require long-term memory

information processing model

suggests that long-term memory is a system that encodes, stores, and retrieves information (like a computer)

level of processing

information is processed differently depending upon the instructions and the task and can vary from relatively shallow processing to relatively deep processing

Craik & Lockhart

introduced deep and shallow processing concepts

deep and shallow

levels of processing

shallow processing

focuses on the physical features of an item rather than its meaning, involve the simple repetition of items.
ex; we see pennies every day, but may have difficulty recalling the information on the front or back of a penny

deep processing

focuses on the meaning of an item and involves forming associations between old and new information, with an effort on making elaborate connections with existing knowledge
examples include processing that focuses on the pleasantness of an item, the definition of an item, and the item’s relationship to other items

Nairne & colleagues

demonstrates that one effective way to process information to is to relate it to your survival
...in preparing for a test, relating course material to information you already know or to something personal in your own life (self-referent) will enhance its retrieval

Landauer

estimates on capacity range from 1000 billion to 1,000,000 billion bits of information for long-term memory

memory trace

the physical record of memory in the brain
- changes occur in the synapses to “form” memories
...- the synapses become more efficient at transmitting signals which strengthen the message

memories do not exist in ONE place in the brain, but reside all over the brain
It depends upon the nature of the material being learned
Info storage appears to be linked to the sites in the brain where the processing of that information occurs

how memory is distributed throughout the brain

retrieval cues

stimuli that help people get information from long-term memory

associations

act like anchors to help retrieve memories

recall

ability to retrieve information with no or small cues (fill-in-the-blank)

recognition

ability to retrieve information by identifying if you have been exposed to it before (multiple choice questions)