AP PSYCH MOD SCI

1st mod gavs

critical thinking

thinking that does not automatically accept arguments and conclusions, but rather examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions

hindsight bias

Hindsight bias is the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen or predicted it.

peer reviewers

subject-matter experts who evaluate research manuscripts, studies, or articles before publication in academic journals

theory

a well-substantiated, organized explanation that uses integrated principles to structure observations, explain phenomena, and predict behaviors or events

hypothesis

a specific, testable prediction or educated guess about the relationship between two or more variables

falsifiable

the principle that a scientific theory, hypothesis, or statement must be testable and able to be proven wrong through empirical observation or experimentation

operational definition

a precise, measurable description of the procedures used to define research variables (independent and dependent)

replication

the process of repeating a research study, usually with different participants and in different situations, to determine if the original findings are reliable, valid, and able to be generalized

case study

an in-depth, detailed, and qualitative research method involving the intensive examination of a single individual, small group, or rare phenomenon

naturalistic observation

Naturalistic observation is a research method where behavior is observed in its natural setting without any manipulation or intervention by the researcher. It involves watching and recording behavior as it occurs naturally.

survey

a research method used to measure self-reported attitudes, opinions, or behaviors of a specific group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of that population

social desirability bias

the tendency of survey respondents to answer questions in a way that aligns with social expectations, rather than revealing their true thoughts or behaviors

self-report bias

the tendency for individuals to provide inaccurate, distorted, or dishonest information about themselves, behaviors, or experiences in surveys and interviews

sampling bias

a research error occurring when a sample is not representative of the larger population, leading to skewed results and invalid generalizations

random sample

A random sample is a subset of individuals randomly selected by researchers from a larger population. Each individual has an equal probability of selection which helps ensure that the sample represents the population well.

population

In psychology, a population refers to all individuals who share particular characteristics and can be considered as part of a larger group from which samples are drawn.

correlation

Correlation refers to the statistical relationship between two variables. If one variable changes, there tends to be a consistent change in the other variable too.

correlation coefficient

The correlation coefficient measures the strength and direction of a linear relationship between two variables on a scatterplot. It ranges from -1 to 1 where -1 indicates perfect negative correlation, 0 indicates no correlation, and 1 indicates perfect positive correlation.

variable

Variables are measurable characteristics, properties, traits, or conditions that can change or vary in quantity or quality during a study. They are usually categorized as independent variables (those manipulated) and dependent variables (those affected by manipulation).

scatterplot

A scatterplot is a graph that visually represents the relationship between two variables. It shows the pattern of data points by plotting them as individual dots on a graph with one variable on the x-axis and another on the y-axis.

illusory correlation

the perception of a relationship between two variables (events, actions, or behaviors) when no actual, logical relationship exists

regression toward the mean

the statistical tendency for extreme scores or behaviors to move closer to the average (mean) when measured a second time

experiment

Experiments are a type of research method where the researcher manipulates one variable (independent variable) to determine its effect on another variable (dependent variable).

experimental group

the set of participants exposed to the independent variable (the treatment or manipulation) in an experiment

control group

In an experiment, the control group is the set that does not receive the treatment or intervention and is used as a benchmark to measure how other tested subjects do.

random assignment

Random assignment is a method used in experiments to ensure that each participant has an equal chance of being placed into any group. This helps to eliminate bias and make sure the results are due to the variable being tested, not differences between groups.

single-blind procedure

an experimental procedure where the participants are unaware of whether they are in the experimental group (receiving the treatment) or the control group (receiving a placebo), but the researchers know

double-blind procedure

A double-blind procedure is an experimental method used to eliminate bias. In this setup, neither the participant nor the experimenter knows which group (control or experimental) the participant is in.

placebo effect

The placebo effect is a psychological phenomenon where a person experiences an improvement in their condition or symptoms after receiving a treatment that is inactive or doesn't have any therapeutic effect. This happens because they believe the treatment will work.

independent variable

the factor, condition, or treatment that a researcher manipulates or changes in an experiment to determine its effect on another variable

confounding variable

an unwanted, outside factor (other than the independent variable) that varies systematically between experimental and control groups, confusing results and damaging internal validity

experimenter bias

occurs when a researcher’s expectations or preferences unintentionally influence participants or data, skewing results to fit a preconceived hypothesis

dependent variable

the behavior, outcome, or mental process that is measured, observed, or recorded by the researcher

validity

Valid refers to the degree to which a measurement or assessment accurately measures what it is intended to measure. In the context of psychology, validity refers to how well a psychological construct or diagnosis captures and represents the true nature of an individual's experiences or behaviors.

quantitative research

A quantitative research method is an approach used in psychology to collect and analyze numerical data. It focuses on measuring variables and using statistical analysis to make generalizations and draw conclusions.

qualitative research

Qualitative research is a method of inquiry that focuses on understanding human behavior, experiences, and social phenomena through the collection of non-numerical data.

informed consent

an ethical principle in AP Psychology requiring researchers to inform potential participants of the study's purpose, procedures, risks, and benefits before they agree to take part

debriefing

Debriefing is a process used after an experiment or research study where participants are provided with information regarding the purpose, procedures, and findings of the study. It allows participants to ask questions, express concerns, and ensures their well-being after participating.

descriptive statistics

numerical procedures used to organize, summarize, and describe the main characteristics of a dataset

histogram

A histogram is a graphical representation of the distribution of numerical data, where the data is divided into intervals, or 'bins', and the frequency of data points within each bin is displayed as bars. This visualization helps in understanding the shape, spread, and central tendencies of data, making it a crucial tool in analyzing quantitative variables.

mode

a measure of central tendency defined as the score or value that appears most frequently in a data set

mean

summing all scores and dividing by the total number of scores

median

the middle score in a dataset, separating the top 50% from the bottom 50% when values are ordered from lowest to highest

percentile rank

a measure of relative standing, indicating the percentage of scores in a distribution that fall below a specific score

skewed distribution

a type of asymmetric probability distribution where data points are clustered more on one side of the mean, creating a long "tail" on the other

range

a measure of variability (dispersion) defined as the gap between the highest and lowest scores in a data set

standard deviation

a computed measure of variability indicating the average distance between scores and their mean

normal curve

a symmetric, bell-shaped frequency distribution where most data points cluster around the central mean, with frequencies decreasing equally toward the extremes

inferential statistics

mathematical methods used to draw conclusions, make predictions, or generalize findings from a small sample to a larger population

meta analysis

a statistical technique in AP Psychology used to combine and analyze data from multiple independent studies on the same topic to reach an overall conclusion

statistical significance

indicates that research results (e.g., differences between groups) are likely "real" and not due to chance

effect size

a quantitative measure of the magnitude or strength of a relationship, difference, or treatment effect between variables