PYB202 Social Psychology

Social Psychology Definition (Aronson)

The scientific study of how people's thoughts feelings and behaviors are influenced by the real or imagined presence of others.

The common element in definitions of Social Psychology

The scientific study of individuals in a social context or situation.

The "Causal Word" in Social Psychology

Influence—because researchers are interested in the causal impact situations have on people.

Internal Validity

The degree to which you can be certain the Independent Variable (IV) caused the changes in the Dependent Variable (DV).

Random Assignment

Allocating participants to conditions so each has an equal chance of being in any group; essential for balancing individual differences.

Convenience Sampling

Recruiting participants based on ease of access (e.g. Sona pool); common in social psych but limited in external validity.

Reliability vs. Validity

Reliability is the consistency of a measure; Validity is whether the measure actually taps into the intended construct.

The Four Pillars of the National Statement (Ethics)

Research Merit; Justice; Beneficence (weighing risk vs. benefit); and Respect.

Automatic vs. Controlled Processing

Automatic is non-conscious, unintentional, and effortless (e.g. the Stroop task); Controlled is conscious, intentional, and effortful.

Schemas

Mental structures that organize knowledge about the world (self, others, events) and help interpret ambiguous information

Availability Heuristic

A mental shortcut where people judge likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind (e.g. fearing shark attacks due to news coverage).

Representativeness Heuristic

Judging the probability of something based on how well it matches a prototype or stereotype while often ignoring base rates.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

When a perceiver’s expectation influencers their behaviour toward a target, which causes the target to act in a way that confirms the original expectation (e.g. Rosenthla’s “bloomer” study).

Fundamental Attribution Error (FAE)

The tendency to overestimate internal/dispositional factors and underestimate situational factors when explaining others' behavior.

Kelly’s Covariation Model

A theory that attributions are made using three types of information: Consensus (others' behavior), Distinctiveness (actor's behavior with other stimuli), and Consistency (behavior over time)

Independent vs. Interdependent Self

Independent (Western) sees the self as a separate entity; Interdependent (Eastern) defines the self through relationships.

Self-Perception Theory

When internal cues are weak, people infer their attitudes by observing their own behavior and the situation in which it occurred.

Overjustification Effect

When external rewards (e.g. certificates) are given for a task people already enjoy, it can undermine their intrinsic motivation.

Self-Awareness Theory

Self-focused attention triggers a comparison of behavior against internal standards; can lead to discomfort and "escaping" the self via TV or alcohol.

Social Comparison (Upward/Downward)

Upward (comparing to someone better) can be inspiring or lower self-esteem; Downward (comparing to someone worse) usually boosts self-esteem.

Self-Evaluation Maintenance Model

Self-esteem is threatened when a close other outperforms us in a domain relevant to our self-concept.

Self-Handicapping

Creating obstacles or excuses for oneself so that if one fails, there is a ready situational attribution (e.g. staying up late before an exam).

Narcissism Definition

A grandiose view of the self involving entitlement and low empathy, often leading to aggression when receiving negative feedback.

Propinquity (Proximity) Effect

The finding that the more we see and interact with people, the more likely they are to become our friends.

Mere Exposure Effect

The finding that repeated exposure to a stimulus (even non-consciously) increases our liking of it.

Similarity-Matching

People are drawn to those who share similar demographics, interests, and especially political views.

Reciprocal Liking

We like people who we think like us; this can even overpower the effects of dissimilarity.

Halo Effect

A bias where we assume that a person with one positive trait (like physical attractiveness) also possesses other positive traits (like kindness or intelligence).

Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love

Three components: Intimacy (emotional), Passion (motivational), and Commitment (cognitive).

Investment Model (Rusbolt)

Commitment to a relationship depends on satisfaction, the quality of alternatives, and the size of investments (time, effort, shared memories.

Exchange vs. Communal Relationships

Exchange involves strict reciprocity (strangers); Communal involves responding to the other's needs over time without "keeping score" (family, close friends).

Hostile vs. Instrumental Aggression

Hostile is driven by anger and the goal is to inflict pain; Instrumental is a means to some other end (e.g. self-defense).

Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis

The idea that frustration (interrupted goal progress) increases the motive to aggress, especially if the obstacle is unexpected or you are close to the goal.

The Weapons Effect

The mere presence of an aggressive cue (like a gun) can increase aggression in someone who is already angry.

Social Learning Theory (Bandura)

Aggression is learned by observing and imitating models (e.g. the Bobo Doll study).

Culture of Honor

A culture where small insults are seen as threats to status, triggering an aggressive response (e.g. Southern vs. Norther US males).

Alcohol Myopia

Alcohol narrows attention to the most salient cues (e.g. an insult) while ignoring inhibiting cues (e.g. consequences).

The Myth of Catharsis

Contrary to popular belief, "venting" or watching aggression actually increases subsequent aggressive behaviour.

Effective Aggression Interventions

Training in empathy, self-control, and cognitive reappraisal are more effective than venting or physical punishment.

ABC Model of Attitudes

Affective (feelings), Behavioural (observations of actions), and Cognitive (beliefs/facts) components.

Implicit Association Test (IAT)

An indirect measure of attitudes that uses reaction times to pair concepts, bypassing social desirability bias.

Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB)

Predicts intentional behaviour based on Attitudes, Subjective Norms (others' approval), and Perceived Behavioural Control.

Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)

Persuasion occurs via the Central Route (strong arguments, high motivation) or Peripheral Route (superficial cues, low motivation).

The Sleeper Effect

A delayed increase in the persuasive impact of a message from a non-credible source because the source is forgotten but the message is remembered.

Fear Appeals Requirements

To be effective, fear must be moderate and accompanied by specific instructions on how to reduce the threat (Self-Efficacy).

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Discomfort felt when behaviour is inconsistent with attitudes; reduced by changing behaviour, changing cognitions or adding new cognitions.

Attitude Inoculation

Making people immune to persuasion by exposing them to small, weak doses of counter-arguments first.

Milgram’s Obedience Study

65% of participants delivered the maximum 450-volt shock when commanded by a legitimate authority figure.

Factors Decreasing Obedience (Milgram)

Proximity to the victim; remote experimenter; and the presence of dissenting peers.

Informational Social Influence

Conforming because we see others as a source of information in ambiguous situations (e.g. Sherif’s autokinetic study); leads to private acceptance.

Normative Social Influence

Conforming to be liked or accepted by the group (e.g. Asch’s line study); usually leads to public compliance without private acceptance.

Group Size and Conformity

Conformity increases with group size up to about 5 people, after which additional people have little impact.

Minority Influence

A minority can influence the majority if they maintain a consistent behavioral style.

Idiosyncrasy Credits

Tolerance earned over time by conforming to group norms, which eventually allows a person to deviate or lead a minority view.

Foot-in-the-Door Technique

Getting someone to agree to a large request by first having them agree to a smaller, related request.

Social Facilitation

The tendency to perform better on simple tasks and worse on complex tasks in the presence of others when being evaluated.

Social Loafing

Putting in less effort when in a group where individual performance cannot be evaluated (motivation loss).

De-individuation

The loss of self-awareness and personal accountability in a crowd, often leading to impulsive or antisocial behaviour.

Groupthink

Flawed decision-making in highly cohesive groups where maintaining solidarity is more important than evaluating facts realistically.

Group Polarization

The tendency for group members to make decisions that are more extreme than their initial individual inclinations.

Tragedy of the Commons

A social dilemma where individuals acting in their short-term interest deplete a shared resource, leading to long-term disaster for everyone.

Zimbardo's Stanford Prison Experiment

Demonstrated that social roles (guards vs. prisoners) can be so powerful they erase personal identity and drive extreme behavior.

Prejudice (ABC Model)

Affective (emotions/hatred), Behavioural (discrimination), and Cognitive (stereotypes).

Stereotype Definition

Generalizations about a group where traits are assigned to all members regardless of variation.

Microaggressions

Subtle, everyday, typically "automatic" forms of discrimination that are often hard to pinpoint.

Realistic Conflict Theory

Prejudice and discrimination arise from actual competition between groups for scarce resources (e.g. Robbers Cave study).

Social Identity Theory (Prejudice)

We gain self-esteem from our group memberships, leading to in-group bias and out-group derogation.

Out-group Homogeneity

The perception that "they" (the out-group) are all the same, while "we" (the in-group) are diverse.

The Contact Hypothesis (Allport)

Intergroup contact reduces prejudice only under conditions of:

• Prolonged cooperative activity

• Official sanctioning (supported by laws)

• Shared similarities are emphasised

• Equal social status

• Out-group members are seen as typical of their group

Altruism vs. Prosocial Behavior

Prosocial behavior is any act helping another; Altruism is helping with no benefit (and often cost) to the self.

The Bystander Effect

The more people who witness an emergency, the less likely any one person is to help.

Pluralistic Ignorance

Bystanders look to each other for cues; if others are calm, they assume there is no emergency (social influence).

Diffusion of Responsibility

Each bystander's sense of duty decreases as the number of witnesses increases.

Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis

If we feel empathy for someone, we help for purely altruistic reasons; if not, we help only if it serves our interest.

Urban Overload Hypothesis

People in cities keep to themselves to avoid being overwhelmed by constant environmental stimulation.

Mood and Helping

People are more likely to help when they are in a good mood ("Feel Good, Do Good”) or feeling guilty.

How to Get Help

To reduce the bystander effect, single out one person, make eye contact and give a specific command (e.g. “You in the red shirt, call 000”).

Environmental Psychology Definition

A multidisciplinary field investigating the effects of the physical environment on human behavior and welfare.

Field Theory (Kurt Lewin)

Behavior is a function of the Person and the Environment (B=f(P,E).

Hawthorne Effect

Increased productivity or behavior change that occurs simply because people know they are being studied.

Proxemics Zones

Intimate, personal, social, and public spaces; invisible bubbles that regulate interaction.

Types of Territory

Primary (exclusively mine, e.g. bedroom), Secondary (regularly used, e.g. "my" lecture seat), and Public (temporary use).

Place Attachment

Feelings of connection to a geographic location that provide comfort and identity (e.g. Indigenous "Connection to Country").

Descriptive vs. Injunctive Norms

Descriptive is what people actually do (e.g. "75% reuse towels"); Injunctive is what is approved/disapproved of.

Induced Hypocrisy Paradigm

Highlighting the gap between a person's attitudes and their actual (often non-sustainable) behavior to motivate change.

Perceptual salience

we attribute causes to whatever stands out to us visually (E.g. Taylor and Fiske Actor A and B experiment)

Sherif’s Robbers Cave study

• Split boys at a summer camp into waring groups. Friction was created through competitive games with a single trophy prize

• To reduce this prejudice, Sherif introduced superordinate goals—tasks that required interdependence to succeed, such as pulling a bogged food truck or pooling money for a movie. These shared goals transformed led to reduced tension and greater interpersonal liking between members of rival groups

Identity threat strategies

If a group's identity is threatened (e.g., they perform poorly), members may use social creativity to redefine the value of an existing dimension (e.g., "we may have lower grades, but we have a better social life") or compare themselves to a different out-group that performed even worse